社会学 202 考试 3 学习材料：关键术语和定义单词卡 |小测验 --- Sociology 202 Exam 3 Study Material: Key Terms and Definitions单词卡 | Quizlet

animism

the religion that believes in the divinity of nonhuman beings, like animals, plants, and objects of the natural world

atheism

the belief in no deities

cults

religious groups that are small, secretive, and highly controlling of members and have a charismatic leader

denomination

a large, mainstream religion that is not sponsored by the state

ecclesia

a religion that is considered the state religion

established sects

sects that last but do not become denominations

liberation theology

the use of a church to promote social change via the political arena

megachurch

a Christian church that has a very large congregation averaging more than 2,000 people who attend regular weekly services

monotheism

a religion based on belief in a single deity

polytheism

a religion based on belief in multiple deities

religion

a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds to be sacred or spiritually significant

religious beliefs

specific ideas that members of a particular faith hold to be true

religious experience

the conviction or sensation that one is connected to "the divine"

religious rituals

behaviors or practices that are either required for or expected of the members of a particular group

sect

a small, new offshoot of a denomination

totemism

belief in a divine connection between humans and other natural beings

ambilineal

a type of unilateral descent that follows either the father's or the mother's side exclusively

bigamy

the act of entering into marriage while still married to another person

bilateral descent

the tracing of kinship through both parents' ancestral lines

cohabitation

the act of a couple sharing a residence while they are not married

extended family

a household that includes at least one parent and child as well as other relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins

family

socially recognized groups of individuals who may be joined by blood, marriage, or adoption and who form an emotional connection and an economic unit of society

family life course

a sociological model of family that sees the progression of events as fluid rather than as occurring in strict stages

family life cycle

a set of predictable steps and patterns families experience over time

family of orientation

the family into which one is born

family of procreation

a family that is formed through marriage

kinship

a person's traceable ancestry (by blood, marriage, and/or adoption)

marriage

a legally recognized contract between two or more people in a sexual relationship who have an expectation of permanence about their relationship

matrilineal descent

a type of unilateral descent that follows the mother's side only

matrilocal residence

a system in which it is customary for a husband to live with the his wife's family

monogamy

the act of being married to only one person at a time

nuclear family

two parents (traditionally a married husband and wife) and children living in the same household

patrilineal descent

a type of unilateral descent that follows the father's line only

patrilocal residence

a system in which it is customary for the a wife to live with (or near) the her husband's family

polyandry

a form of marriage in which one woman is married to more than one man at one time

polygamy

the state of being committed or married to more than one person at a time

polygyny

a form of marriage in which one man is married to more than one woman at one time

unilateral descent

the tracing of kinship through one parent only

automation

workers being replaced by technology

bartering

a process where people exchange one form of goods or services for another

capitalism

an economic system in which there is private ownership (as opposed to state ownership) and where there is an impetus to produce profit, and thereby wealth

career inheritance

a practice where children tend to enter the same or similar occupation as their parents

convergence theory

a sociological theory to explain how and why societies move toward similarity over time as their economies develop

depression

a sustained recession across several economic sectors

economy

the social institution through which a society's resources (goods and services) are managed

global assembly lines

a practice where products are assembled over the course of several international transactions

global commodity chains

internationally integrated economic links that connect workers and corporations for the purpose of manufacture and marketing

market socialism

a subtype of socialism that adopts certain traits of capitalism, like allowing limited private ownership or consulting market demand

mechanical solidarity

a form of social cohesion that comes from sharing similar work, education, and religion, as might be found in simpler societies

mercantilism

an economic policy based on national policies of accumulating silver and gold by controlling markets with colonies and other countries through taxes and customs charges

money

an object that a society agrees to assign a value to so it can be exchanged as payment

mutualism

a form of socialism under which individuals and cooperative groups exchange products with one another on the basis of mutually satisfactory contracts

organic solidarity

a form of social cohesion that arises out of the mutual interdependence created by the specialization of work

outsourcing

a practice where jobs are contracted to an outside source, often in another country

polarization

a practice where the differences between low-end and high-end jobs become greater and the number of people in the middle levels decreases

recession

two or more consecutive quarters of decline in the GDP

socialism

an economic system in which there is government ownership (often referred to as "state run") of goods and their production, with an impetus to share work and wealth equally among the members of a society

structural unemployment

a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the jobs that are available

subsistence farming

farming where farmers grow only enough to feed themselves and their families

underemployment

a state in which a person accepts a lower paying, lower status job than his or her education and experience qualifies him or her to perform

xenophobia

an illogical fear and even hatred of foreigners and foreign goods

absolute monarchy

governments wherein a monarch has absolute or unmitigated power

anarchy

the absence of any organized government

authority

power that people accept because it comes from a source that is perceived as legitimate

charismatic authority

power legitimized on the basis of a leader's exceptional personal qualities

constitutional monarchies

national governments that recognize monarchs but require these figures to abide by the laws of a greater constitution

democracy

a form of government that provides all citizens with an equal voice or vote in determining state policy

dictatorship

a form of government in which a single person (or a very small group) wields complete and absolute authority over a government or populace after the dictator rises to power, usually through economic or military might

monarchy

a form of government in a single person (a monarch) rules until that individual dies of abdicates the throne

oligarchy

a form of government in which power is held by a small, elite group

one person, one vote

a concept holding that each person's vote should be counted equally

patrimonialism

a type of authority wherein military and administrative actions enforce the power of the master

politics

a means of studying a nation's or group's underlying social norms as values as evidenced through its political structure and practices

power

the ability to exercise one's will over others

power elite

a small group of powerful people who control much of a society

rational-legal authority

power that is legitimized by rules, regulations, and laws

Representative Democracy

a government wherein citizens elect officials to represent their interests

totalitarian dictatorship

an extremely oppressive form of dictatorship in which most aspects of citizens' lives are controlled by the leader

traditional authority

power legitimized on the basis of long-standing customs

credentialism

the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications

cultural capital

cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency to help one navigate a culture

cultural transmission

the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture

education

the social institution through which society provides its members with important knowledge, including basic facts, job skills, and cultural norms and values

formal education

the learning of academic facts and concepts

grade inflation

the idea that the achievement level associated with an A today is notably lower than the achievement level associated with A-level work a few decades ago

Head Start Program

a federal program that provides academically focused preschool to students of low socioeconomic status

hidden curriculum

the type of nonacademic knowledge that people learn through informal learning and cultural transmission

informal education

education that involves learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors through participation in a society

No Child Left Behind Act

an act that requires states to test students in prescribed grades, with the results of those tests determining eligibility to receive federal funding

social placement

the use of education to improve one's social standing

sorting

classifying students based on academic merit or potential

tracking

a formalized sorting system that places students on "tracks" (advanced, low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities

universal access

the equal ability of all people to participate in an education system