PSYC 385 Quiz 2

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The part of our nervous system that deals with the processing and response of sensory and perception information.

Brain - Duh

Spinal Cord - Carries information through the reticular formation. Reflexes!

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Everything else outside of the CNS. Begins in the head, goes through the neck, and extends to all areas of our body where nerves are located.

Includes the spinal cord due to it being moveable.

Two Divisions:

• Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

True or False - The spinal cord is only part of the CNS and is not part of the PNS.

False

Somatic Nervous System (SNS)

The division of the PNS that involves interaction with our outer environment.

Afferent nerves deal with senses, like smell, touch, taste, pain, etc. Efferent nerves deal in muscle movement.

True or False - The SNS has different divisions of efferent nerves.

False

Autonomic Nervous System

The division of the PNS that interacts with out internal organs and environment to keep equilibrium in our body’s functions.

Afferent nerves deal in things like heart rate, hunger, thirst, fullness, and inner nociception (pain). Efferent deals with whatever response is needed.

Division in Efferent nerves:

• Sympathetic

• Parasympathetic

Sympathetic Nerves

A type of efferent nerve in the ANS that deals in the small of the back (lumbar) and the chest (thoracic) parts of the spinal cord.

Sends signals to the nervous system to put the body’s system on alert. Fight or flight!

Dilates pupil, inhibits salivary gland, relaxes bronchi, accelerates heartbeat, inhibits digestive activity, glucose release from liver, relaxes bladder, inhibits sexual arousal.

Parasympathetic Nerves

A type of efferent in the ANS that deals in the brain and lower back (sacral) part of the spinal cord.

Sends signals to the nervous to return the body back to normal after being in fight or flight.

Constricts pupil, stimulates salivary gland, constricts bronchi, slows heartbeat, stimulates digestive activity, stimulates gallbladder, contracts bladder, stimulates sexual arousal.

Afferent

Incoming signal towards the CNS

Takes a signal AWAY from the source towards the brain

Efferent

Outgoing signal away from the CNS and towards the PNS

Takes a signal towards the original source from the brain to perform an EXERTION of effort

Behave differently from the ANS

Spinal Cord Parts

DAVE

• Dorsal - Afferent

• Ventral - Efferent

Gray Matter - Inner component containing primarily cell bodies

White Matter - Outer areas containing myelinated axons

Dorsal Root

Sensory information enters the spinal cord through afferent nerves. Where signals synapse onto the brain

Ventral Root

Motor information leaves the spinal cord through efferent nerves

Meninges

The non-bone protective layers found around the brain and spinal cord.

Three sections

• Dura Mater - Outer tough membrane

• Arachnoid Membrane - Web-like membrane underneath

• Pia Mater - Glue to the CNS on the bottom

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

The cushioning fluid found in the subarachnoid space, the spinal cord’s central canal, and the brain’s central ventricles. It’s a single reservoir of liquid going across various areas that helps support and cushion our brains from pain.

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

The toxic substance blocker formed from the brain’s blood vessel walls being tightly packed together. It acts like a cell membrane, letting some things in that are critical to the brain, like glucose, and blocking out others.

Located all around the brain.

Cells that do get through are passed through transporters. If the cell is too big or has no transporter, no get in!

Ventricles

Pockets on the inside of the brain that offer protection through cooling the brain, removing toxins, and renewing neurons.

Two-System View of the Stress Response

1) Anterior Pituitary → Adrenal Cortex → Glucocorticouds. Physiological measure that’s slower in moving.

2) Sympathetic Nervus System → Adrenal Medulla → Epinephrine & Norepinephrine. Psychological measure that’s faster in moving.

True or False - The view on stress response is dual-natured due to creating both positive and negative consequences.

True

Anterior Pituitary

The messenger of the hypothalamus that sends out hormones around our body in order to act out a certain function. It sends out hormones to the adrenal cortex, which then sends out glucocorticoids.

Hypothalamus sends releaser hormones with incoming messages.

Cells in the anterior detect the releaser and produce a tropic hormone, which is released into the bloodstream and talks with the rest of the body through the hypothalamopituitary portal system to either increase or decrease levels.

Adrenal Cortex

The outer part of the adrenal gland that sends out glucocorticoids, cortisol, and androgens. It’s bathed in blood and receives the tropic hormones sent from the anterior pituitary.

It’s helpful in competitive situations.

Glucocorticoids

Triggered by adrenocorticotropic hormones from the anterior pituitary gland. They use our energy reserves to create a physiological stress response, like movement. Regulates metabolism and suppresses inflammation.

Adrenal Medulla

The inner part of the adrenal gland that sends out epinephrine and norepinephrine. Cells get in and synapse after traveling through the sympathetic nervous system. Efferent signals are sent here, where it then pumps out the proper response.

Epinephrine & Norepinephrine

Triggered by the adrenal medulla’s release. They also use energy resources to create a physiological stress response. Increases alertness and internal responses like heart rate and blood pressure.

Epinephrine redistributes energy to where it needs to go in the body. Redistributes blood flow.

Norepinephrine does the same but in the brain and shuts down access to things that aren’t necessary. Important at low levels - wakefulness and motivation.

Subordination Stress

When stress from members of the same species is a part of daily life. This is mainly present within hierarchies, as some members are higher ranking and therefore more likely to attack the lower ones.

It lowers testosterone levels and rises glucocorticoid levels.

The testes decrease and the life span becomes shorter. Increases the chance of attacking their own children.

True or False - An increase of stress always means that you are more susceptible to disease.

False

Stress and the Hippocampus

When there’s high times of stress, the hippocampus reacts poorly.

Dendritic branching reduces, neurogenesis decreases, synapse structure is altered, and performance is disrupted.

This leads to disruptions in long term AND working memory, leading to memories not forming correctly, trouble recalling, and trouble in emotional balance.

True or False - The hippocampus plays a strong role in the stress response due to it holding a large center of glucocorticoid receptors.

True

True or False - The secondary branch of the stress response, being the sympathetic nervous system, plays a role in how the hippocampus behaves due to its release of glucocorticoids.

False

Psychosomatic Disorders

Mental disorders brought about by stress, combining physiological factors with factors.

Stress leads to a disruption in our immune systems, leading to some susceptibility to health changes. However, most of it is mental.

True or False - The following are psychosomatic disorders: heart disease, asthma, skin disorders, and gastric ulcers.

True

True or False - The main cause of psychosomatic disorders and health issues is the mental response to stress rather than the immune system’s weakness in stress.

True

Eustress

Positive stress. A stress that helps us progress, like getting a bad grade motivating you to study harder. Also improves the innate immune system.

Distress

Negative stress. A stress that may lead to physical and mental harm, like a difficult breakup.

How does stress early in life affect later stress response?

The brain learns to send more glucocorticoids whenever stress occurs, leading to higher behavior and hormonal responses later on.

True or False - People cope with extended stress by producing lower glucocorticoid receptors as a protective mechanism, leading to stronger and longer stress responses.

True

The Various Endocrine Glands

Pineal & Pituitary in the Brain

Thyroid & Parathyroid

Thymus

Adrenal - Cortex & Medulla

Pancreas

Ovaries & Testis

Pineal Gland

An endocrine gland located in the brain that deals in melatonin and the regulation of the sleep cycle. It’s close to the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus, which handles circadian rhythm.

Pituitary Gland

An endocrine gland located in the brain that instructs all other glands through hormone release. Master gland controlled by the hypothalamus.

Thyroid & Parathyroid

An endocrine gland that works to extract nutrients from food and works with our gut.

Hyperthyroid hormone = More energy. Hypo = less.

Thymus

An endocrine gland that interacts with the immune system to produce white blood cells. It has no strong role in regulating hormones and deals more in how hormones interact.

Adrenal Gland

An endocrine gland that sits on top of the kidney and is responsible for androgen & testosterone production. Has tissues for the cortex and medulla.

Pancreas

An endocrine gland that produces insulin. It grabs sugar out of the blood and stores it in the liver.

We produce insulin when we taste something sweet AKA we need sugar in food to react to it!

Ovaries

An endocrine gland, known as a gonad, in females that releases estrogen and progesterone. Develops from the cortex of the primordial gonad.

Relatively quiet until puberty.

Testes

An endocrine gland, known as a gonad, in males that releases testosterone and anti-Mullerian hormones. Develops from the medulla of the primordial gonad.

True or False - The hypothalamus has clusters of nodes for many different reasons, like feeding, fighting, fleeing, and fucking (4 Fs).

True

Gonadotropic Hormone

The tropic hormone sent to the sex organ that tells in to produce more of what it does.

Thyrotropic Hormone

The tropic hormone sent to the thyroid to test for hyperthyroid hormone & hypothyroid hormone.

Somatotropic Hormone

The tropic hormone that leads to the release of growth hormone in muscle and skeletal area.

Increases the presence of Growth Hormone (HGH)

Pregnant people are high in it due to raising a baby, but this hormone isn’t what indicates a pregnancy.

Corticotropic Hormone

The tropic hormone sent to the adrenal gland to release glucocorticoids.

Adrenocorticotropic-releasing hormone (ACTH) is the hormore within the anterior pituitary that produces this hormone.

Lactotropic Hormone

The tropic hormone sent to the exocrine gland to trigger milk production in ducts.

Posterior Pituitary

Hormones are released through ducts into blood vessels in the pituitary, and doesn’t send to specific glands. Rather, it sends to the bloodstream as a whole.

The hypothalamus synthesizes hormones onto nuclei until there’s enough action potential for them to be released.

Oxytocin

The posterior pituitary hormone that deals in bonding. It’s released during orgasm, labor, and breastfeeding. Also stimulates uterus contractions.

Vasopressin

The posterior pituitary hormone that deals in water balance through kidney reabsorption.

Immune System Layers

Skin/Mucosal Barriers - First layer

Innate Immune System - Generalized form of attack

Adaptive Immune System - Specific to the attacker. Cell and antibody mediated.

Cytokines

Produce inflammation within the immune system and attack phagocytes. Glucocorticoids block cytokine production, leading to a block in inflammation and early immunity shut down.

Types of Stress

Acute - Brief, <100 mins, Eustress

Chronic - Long periods of time, Distress

Other - Behavior plays a role in how stress affects the immune system. Changes in diet, sleep, exercise, drug use.

Endocrine Gland

Releases chemicals known as hormones into the bloodstream that tells other endocrine glands & the nervous system what to do.

Functions in regulation, specifically with metabolism, development, stress, reproduction, electrolyte levels, and blood sugar levels.

Exocrine Gland

Releases chemicals into ducts, which is then taken directly to the skin or to body cavities.

Sweat, spit, mucus, milk.

Functions in substance production to protect the body, digest food, regulate temperature, and excrete waste.

Activational Effects

When hormones bring out and activate behavior of reproduction within mature adults. Short-lived and reversible.

A change only occurs when the hormone is present.

EX: The skin is always under hormone control through DHT

Organizational Effects

When hormones create behavioral, physiological, psychological, and anatomical differences between a male or a female. It influences from conception through maturity.

The hormone has to be present during a critical period to change the development of that trait. After that, the change stays regardless of hormone presence.

SDN-POA

Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus of the Preoptic Area

A region of the hypothalamus that exhibits the difference between males and females in its structure. It’s larger in males due to testosterone, as it has been “masculinized” through different organization and responses.

Feedback System

When a stimulus leads to a loop of resources that either increases or decreases the initial reaction. The output is brought back in to keep the loop going in order to reach a balanced state in the body.

True or False - Feedback systems will never be negative and are only ever positive.

False

Androstenedione

The hormone involved in pubic hair development.

Testosterone

The hormone that overtakes the natural development of female organs and turns it into male organs.

Male Internal System Hormones

Testosterone

Growth Hormone

Gonadotropic and ACTH

Androstenedione

Balance of androgen and estrogen, in which androgen is higher

Female Internal System Hormones

Growth Hormone

Gonadotropic and ACTH

Androstenedione

Balance of androgen and estrogen, in which estrogen is higher

Primordial Gonads

The two INTERNAL systems that develop 6 weeks after conception that have the possibility to turn into either an ovary or a testis.

Has the cortex and medulla.

Sry Protein

Released from the Sry gene on the Y chromosome that leads to the medulla of the primordial gonad to grow into a testis. Overwrites female growth.

Wolffian System

The system that turns into male reproductive ducts following testosterone’s blockage of Mullerian development.

Ducts include the seminal vesicles, which holds the liquid that ejaculates with sperm cells, and the vas deferens, where sperm travels to the seminal vesicles before leaving.

Mullerian System

The system that turns into female productive ducts.

Ducts include the uterus, the upper part of the vagina, and the fallopian tubes, where eggs travel from the ovaries down to the uterus

True or False - All humans develop both the Wolffian and Mullerian Systems at 6 weeks.

True

Scrotum

The outer sac that holds the testes.

Bipotential Precursor

The EXTERNAL system developed at 6 weeks that turns into either the penis or the vagina. It has the glans, urethral folds, lateral body, and labioscrotal swelling.

How Male Growth affects the Bipotential Precursor

• Glans → Head of the penis

• Urethal Folds fuse

• Lateral Bodies → Shaft

• Labioscrotal Swellungs → Scrotum

How Female Growth affects the Bipotential Precursor

• Glans → Clitoris

• Urethal Folds → Enlarge & Become the Labia Minora

• Lateral Bodies → Hood of the Clitoris

• Labioscrotal Swellungs → Labia Majorane

True or False - Testosterone is the ruler of external male genital development.

True

Intersexed

A genetic male (XY) that has ovaries. This occurs due to Sry protein blockage, which causes internal male development - testosterone is still present - but no male external genitalia.

DHT

Testosterone is synthesized into this through 5a-reductase enzyme. It enlarges the external organs into the penis and scrotum.

True or False - ASE does not mean that the thing is an enzyme.

False

Sex

Your chromosomes. Not just XX and XY

Gender

Assigned at birth (binary)

Identity (non-binary)

• Cisgender

• Transgender

• Gender Non-Conforming

Expression (non-binary)

• Can depend on context

Hormone Level Regulation

Hormonal

• Tropic hormones sent from the anterior pituitary to glans

• Positive and negative feedback

• Pulsatile release

Neural

• All endocrine glands (except ant pituitary) receive neural signals

Non-Hormonal Chemicals

• Glucose

• Ca2+

• Na+

All Possible Sex Chromosome Combinations

XX - Female

XY - Male

XYY - Diff sex twins share same karyotype with different complements of chromosomes.

XXX - Largest reduction in IQ

X - Turner’s Syndrome

XXY - Klinefelter’s Syndrome

Turner’s Syndrome

X0

A single chromosome instead of a pair, with outcomes depending on mosaicism.

They typically have female external genitalia with abnormal ovary development, leaving a lack of eggs or infertility.

Physical traits involve being short and having skin folds at the neck. Sometimes issues in spatial development and memory

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

XXY

Phenotypically male but have reduced fertility and need hormone treatment for puberty’s secondary characteristics to appear + to stop female characteristics from occurring.

It interferes in X-inactivation, leading to X and Y growth

Characteristics include mild cognitive difficulties, social awkwardness, delayed verbal skills, and left-handedness.

5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency

A condition within the final step of puberty that affects external genitalia maturation and causes a switch from female to male appearance. Affects males only.

When this is present, there’s not enough 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone to affect the external genitalia of a fetus, leading to ambiguous external genitalia. It gives off more of a vaginal appearance

Internal organs stay male due to testosterone being the controller.

They’re often grown up as women, but switch to a male gender role when puberty’s surge of testosterone leads to male secondary sex characteristics.

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)

A lack of androgen presence due to mutated receptor genes in androgen. It creates a lack of menstruation, pain in intercourse, fineness of pubic hair, and an underdeveloped uterus and vagina.

The person starts out XY with male-levels of androgen, but the body acts like there’s no androgen. This leads to external female genitals and internal male ducts.

The testes release estrogen in the lack of androgen to bring out a more female behavior. Brain and body thinks it’s genetically female.

Neither Wolffian nor Mullerian systems develop. Lack of androgen reception causes Wolffian to shrivel & anti-Mullerian hormone blocks Mullerian development. Female external system with no functional ovaries.

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (Andrenogenital Syndrome)

The occurrence of excessive androgen release from the adrenal glands affecting the sexual development of genetically females - 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency. Cholesterol usually turns into aldosterone (removal of toxins in pee) and cortisone (stress hormone). With these being blocked, it causes androgen to be overpriced, flooding DHT.

In XX people, it causes outer organs to appear male, but leaves the rest of the system the same due to the lateness of androgen release. Underdeveloped Mullerian and Wolffian systems - Mullerian grows until Wolffian attempts to take over. When partial, it leaves ambiguous external genitalia.

Detected in babies showing jaundice - skin looking yellow from inability to excrete waste (aldosterone). Lack of cortisone leads to different stress responses.

Noteworthy XX Puberty Changes

• Wider hips

• Breast development and growth

• External genitalia maturity

• Uterus maturity

• Change in how fat is distrbuted

Noteworthy XY Puberty Changes

• Facial hair

• Deeper voice due to larynx enlargement

• Muscular development

• External genitalia development

• Receding hairline

• Sperm production

Common Puberty Changes in XX and XY

• Average puberty age - 12.6 years old

• Same use of the hypothalamus to release GnRH

• Same hormone release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary

True or False - The onset age for puberty has decreased due to increased body fat and estrogen-like chemicals in our food.

True

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) & Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

Released from the anterior pituitary after it received gonadotropin-releasing hormones.

In males, they cause a burst of testosterone, leading to male changes in puberty.

In females, they cause a burst of estrogen, leading to female changes in puberty.

True or False - The testes & ovaries don’t release any estrogen/androgen respectively.

False

Estradiol

A type of estrogen present in animals. It slows skeletal growth during puberty.

Pfeiffer’s Experiments

Focused on sex differences in the brain by surgicaly removing gonads from some rats and translating gonads into some rats. 2 (Removal/Non) x 2 (Transplant/Non)

Removal → Female hormone route of hormone release

Testes Transplanted In → Male hormone route of release

Ovaries Transplanted In → No effect

Pfeiffer’s Important Lessons

The body develops as a female unless overruled by testosterone. We are meant to have a female gonadotropin release pattern, but testosterone, whether naturally born or implanted in, disrupts and takes over (perinatal androgens!).

The hypothalamus plays a crucial part in our gonadotropic release, which affects our hormones.

Neonatal

Immediately after birth, being the care within the first month