AP Psych: Unit 0

Psychology

The scientific study of mind and behavior

Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on behavior in terms of conditioning

Middle finger- behavior that is conditioned

Biological Perspective

Focuses on how the body, brain, and genetics can influence emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

Pinky- Pinky promise

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on mental activities associated with thinking and memory

How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.

Pointer finger- pointing at brain

Evolutionary Perspective

Focuses on how natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on a positive approach to reach full potential- motivation, relationships, etc.

Ring finger for relationships

Psychodynamic/ Psychoanalytic Perspective

How the past and unconscious mind impacts your current behavior and mental processes

Thumb pointed behind for the past

Socio-cultural Perspective

Focuses on how social and cultural factors impact behavior

Hindsight Bias

A common tendency for people to perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct- to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

Peer Review

An evaluation process where scholars or researchers assess each other’s work before it gets published

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Falsifiable

If a statement, hypothesis, or theory is an inherent possibility prove it false. A statement is called falsifiable if it is possible to conceive an observation or an arguement which proves the statement in question to be false.

Operational Definition

The definition of a concept in terms of the actual procedures used by the researcher to measure it

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Survey

Obtaining self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually through questioning a random sample

Social Desirability Bias

A type of response bias in which people answer the questions in a way they believe will be viewed favorably by others, rather than how they truly feel or behave.

Self-report Bias

A methodological problem that arises when researchers rely on asking people to describe their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors rather than measuring these directly and objectively

Experimenter Bias

The unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis

Population

All individuals who can potentially participate in the study

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Sample

A smaller group of individuals that are selected from a larger population in order to represent and generalize findings about the entire population

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Convenience Sampling

A non-probability sampling method that involves selecting a sample of individuals or cases based on their availability or proximity to the researcher

Representative Sample

Sample that has the characteristics that are similar to those in the population

Case Study

Studying one person or group in depth in hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in natural situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

Meta-Analysis

Process of analyzing the results of many studies that have measured the same variables

Correlation

Measuring the extent to which two factors vary together and how well one factor can predict the other

Experimental Methodology

Type of research method where the researcher manipulates one variable (independent variable) to determine it’s effect on another variable (dependent variable)

Non-Experimental Methodology

Research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable

Correlation Coefficient

A number (symbolized by r) between -1 and 1 which represents the strength and direction of the correlation between two variables

Scatter Plot

Graphs used to plot the scores and show the correlation

Directionality Problem

a limitation of correlational research that occurs when it's unclear which variable is causing the other

Third Variable Problem

A type of confounding variable in which two factors vary together and how well one factor can predict the other

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme scores to become more moderate or closer to the mean when retested over time

Experiment

Measuring the extent to which two factors vary together and how well one factor can predict the other

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that was not exposed to the treatment. Serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Independent Variable

Variable that the experimenter manipulates

Dependent Variable

Variable that researchers measure

Random Assignment

Ensures all members of the sample have an equal chance of being placed into either group

Single Blind

The subjects don't know which group they belong to, but researchers know who is in which group

Placebo Effect

A real response to an action or substance based solely on expectations, not actual properties of the action or substance

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

Experimental Bias

The unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis

Informed Consent

Participants sign indicating they understand the components and the potential risks of the study and agree to take part

Informed Assent

A process through which minors agree to participate in clinical trials

Protect from Harm

An ethical principle that ensures that research participants are not subjected to physical or psychological harm. The risk of harm should be no greater than what participants would normally encounter in their everyday lives

Confidentiality

The experimenters will not release any information about subjects without their consent

Debriefing

Must debrief the participants by explaining the deception at the conclusion of the study

Quantitive Research

An approach used in psychology to collect and analyze numerical data

Qualitative Research

Rely on observations and descriptions

Likert Scales

A numerical scale used to assess attitudes; includes a set of possible answers with labeled anchors on each extreme

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews, approves, and monitors biomedical and behavioral research conducted on humans

Research Confederates

Person who participates in an experiment but is not the focus of the researchers observation

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and dividing by the number of scores

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Mode

The most frequently occurring in a distribution

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that fall below a particular score

Skewed Distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Bimodal Distribution

Data distribution with two peaks

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal Curve

The symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

Statistical Significance

Measure of how likely the result of an experiment is due to the manipulation of the independent variable or due to chance

Significance reported as the p-value

Statistical Interference

Generalizes from a particular sample to an entire population

Effect Size

A quantitive measurement of the strength between two variables or the difference between groups

Confounding Variable

“Lurking Variable”

Any factor not related to the independent variable that could influence the experiment; things out of the experimenters control

Double-blind Procedure

The researchers AND the participants don’t know whoreceived treatment or placebo.

Eliminates researcher and participant bias.

Deception

When a researcher gives false information to subjects or intentionally misleads them about some key aspect of the research.

Normal Distribution

“Bell Curve”

Positive Skew

A graph skewed to the left

Negative Skew

A graph skewed to the right

American Psychology Association (APA)

The leading scientific and professional organization representing psychology

Generalizability

Results of your study can be applied to different types of people.

Correlational Study

Research conducted to assess the relationship among two or more variables.