education topic 3 - gender

in 2024, how many girls achieved grades 4-9 in gcses (pass and above)

76%

in 2024, how many boys achieved grades 4-9 in gcses (pass and above)

69%

why were schools boy dominated in the 1800s and early 1900s

social norms and educational policy

when did education become compulsory

education act of 1870

when did girls begin to outperform boys

late 1980s

what do some sociologists argue about subject choices

some have a higher status then others

what do feminists in particular argue

‘female’ subjects lead to jobs which pay less and have lower status

what did stables and wikeley (1996) find

when given a choice, girls opt for food tech, whereas boys will opt for graphics

at a-level + degree level, how is this divide highlighted

boys opt for maths and physics, girls opt for english, languages and social sciences

is gender segregation greater in vocational courses or academic subjects

vocational courses

examples of this

boys = construction, engineering; girls = childcare, health and social care, beauty therapy

what are 6 reasons for differences in subject choices

• gender role socialisation

• gendered subject choices

• hidden curriculum

• innate ability

• peer pressure

• gendered career opportunities

what does fiona norman say about gender role socialisation

early childhood socialisation will treat children differently based on gender (clothing, toys, activities) + create gender domains

what are gender domains

areas of activity considered appropriate for each gender → boys develop confidence in physical and technical careers, girls develop confidence in social + caring tasks

what did Murphy and Elwood (1998) argue about gender role socialisation

examined how early socialisation and reading habits influence later subject choices through emphasising gender domains (boys choose hobby + fact books, girls choose stories)

how can schools challenge this (2)

• encouraging diverse reading materials

• promoting cross gender role models in subjects

what do Browne and Ross (1991) argue about gender role socialisation

children’s beliefs about gender domains are shaped by early socialisation → subject choice is shaped by cultural practices and gender-restricted activities (boys → sports, girls → reading)

how does the gendered image of a subject influence who chooses it

subjects are seen as ‘boy’ or ‘girl’ subjects

how does sociologist Kelly argue science is seen as a boys subject (4)

• male-orientated examples in textbooks

• teachers direct questions at boys, encouraging them to be more active in lessons

• science is associated with typically masculine traits (logic, competition)

• few female scientists in media

does stereotyped gender image still exist in single sex schooling

yes

how? (3)

• family, media and culture shape the perceptions that stem = masculine, arts + literature = feminine

• peer pressure = drama may be stigmatised as feminine in boys schools

• teachers may subconsciously reinforce stereotypes

does single sex schooling reduce pressures at all

a little, but stereotypes rooted in wider cultural norms remain

what is the hidden curriculum

informal things you learn in school → textbook images, school system, teacher attitudes, classroom interactions

what did lobban (1976) find

examined the presentation of sex roles in children’s books → girls overwhelmingly portrayed in domestic roles, boys in occupational roles

what did lobban argue this did

stereotyping in early education led to gendered subject choices

what did this do then

highlight the role of the hidden curriculum in shaping gender roles

what is innate ability

the argument that natural differences between boys and girls better suit them for different subjects

in practice, what does this mean

boys = better ‘visual-spatial’ ability (attracting them to sports, tech), girls = better ‘verbal’ ability (language based subjects)

how do sociologists criticise this

they are not natural, but nurture processes like socialisation

effect of peer pressure on gendered subject choices

other people putting pressure on you to choose certain subjects

who supports this

carrie paetcher (1998) → sport seen as a male subject, girls who participate have to accept the assumption its a male subject

what does this factor link to

hegemonic masculinity and femininity

what does that mean

hegemonic → dominant or ruling over others in a way that sets the norm

what is hegemonic masculinity as a result

dominant masculinity → toughness, competitiveness, technical skill

what is the impact of gendered career opportunities

women’s career aspects tend to be concentrated in a narrow range of occupations compared to men → pick subjects that lead to certain careers

what did crawfurd et al (2024) find

analysis of 1255 textbooks across 34 countries → women underrepresented, female characters portrayed as passive + linked to caregiving, male characters shown in active, professional roles

what external factors allow girls to succeed more then boys in education? (4)

• feminism and the women’s movement

• changes in the family

• changes in ambitions

• changes in women’s employment

feminism and the women’s movement’s influence in allowing girls to succeed

improving women’s rights + opportunities through changes in the law

what key study explains the feminism and women’s movement’s influence

Angela McRobbie (1994) → studied girls magazines

what did she discover

1970s → emphasised importance of marriage and ‘not being left on the shelf’

modern day → show independent women

what does this affect

girl’s self image and ambitions in regard to a family and a career

changes in the family’s role in allowing girls to succeed

increasing divorce rate, cohabitation, independent families since 1970s → affect girls attitudes towards education

in order to take on the breadwinner role of the family…

girls must work harder to gain better qualifications

what case study shows changes in ambitions role in allowing girls to succeed

sue sharpe (1976+1994) → interviews conducted in 1970s and 1990s show a major shift in how girls view their futures

what is this shift

1974 → less aspirational, educational success viewed as unfeminine and unattractive, prioritise ‘love, marriage, children, jobs’

1990s → careers more important, future is independent rather then relying on a man

changes in women’s employments influence in allowing girls to succeed

new legislations encourage women to see a future in employment rather then as a housewife

2 legislations which have had a huge impact

• 1970 Equal Pay Act (illegal for women to be paid less then men)

• 1975 Sex Discrimination Act (illegal to discriminate based on gender at work)

since 1975, how much has the gender pay gap reduced

halved (30% to 15%)

how many women now are employed (as of 2013)

67% (as opposed to 53% in 1971)

what internal factors allow girls to succeed more then boys in education? (4)

• equal opportunities policies in school

• challenging stereotypes in the classroom

• positive role models in school

• teacher interaction

how do equal opportunities policies in schools lead to girls achieving greater then schools (3)

• policy makers more aware of gender issues so teachers reduce stereotyping

• belief that boys and girls are entitled to the same opportunities is part of mainstream thinking

• introduction of the curriculum → everyone studies same things

what policies encourage girls to pursue careers in non traditional areas

GIST (girls into science and technology), WISE (women into science and technology)

what are these

examples of efforts to reduce sexist genderisation within stem fields

when was the curriculum introduced

1988

what does Jo Boaler (1998) see the impact of equal opportunities policies on increasing girls achievement as

removing barriers in education + introducing meritocracy within the school

how does challenging classroom stereotypes in the classroom lead to girls achieving greater then schools (2)

• removing gender stereotypes from textbooks and reading schemes removes barrier to girls education

• research in the 1970s and 80s found reading schemes portrayed women as housewives and mothers

what did glenys lobban (1974) research about this

examined 179 stories in 6 reading schemes → women nearly always presented in traditional domestic roles

what does gaby weiner (1995) argue about this

since the 1980s, teachers have challenged such stereotypes + sexist images have been removed from learning materials

what does this mean

girls are presented with more positive images of what women can do

what is a limitation of this

as its a picture, it tells us nothing about its meaning to those who see it

how do positive role models in schools lead to girls achieving greater then schools (2)

• increase in no. of female teachers and heads → role models for girls

• female teachers more likely to be important role models, act as an example of a profession which requires a lengthy and successful education

how many female head teachers were there in 2012 (in nursery and primary schools)

71

how many female head teachers were there in 1992 (in nursery and primary schools)

50

how does teacher interaction lead to girls achieving greater then schools (2)

• teachers ted to respond more positively to girls, who are seen as more cooperative, compared to boys who are seen as more disruptive

• may lead to the creation of a self fulfilling prophecy → boost girls self esteem and raise their achievement levels

whose studies correspond with this (3)

1. jane and peter french (1993)

2. becky francis (2001)

3. swann (1998)

what did jane and peter french discover

boys receive more attention, for being more disruptive in the classroom

what did becky francis discover

boys get harsher discipline and feel picked on by teachers

what did swann discover

boys dominate in whole class discussions, whereas girls prefer pair work or group work → girls take turns to speak, whereas boys interrupt eachother

reasons for boys underachievement in school (7)

• literacy

• anti learning sub cultures

• decline in traditional male jobs

• lower expectations

• different leisure activities

• feminisation of education

• dislike of reading

how does literacy explain why boys are underachieving

poor literacy skills → parents spend less time reading to sons as it is seen as a feminine activity. boys leisure activities don’t encourage communication and language skills, unlike girls bedroom culture

how does anti learning subcultures explain why boys are underachieving

laddish subcultures + peer pressure can lead to boys slacking off

what did francis find that supported this

boys are concerned about being labelled as ‘smart’ by peers, as it threatens their masculinity

what did epstein find that supported this

pro-school working class boys were likely to be harrassed, labelled as ‘gay’ and subjected to homophobic verbal abuse by their peers

how does decline in traditional male jobs explain why boys are underachieving

globalisation since the 1980s has led to manufacturing industries relocating to developing countries → this leads to declining heavy industry employment, creating an identity crisis for males - think they have less chance of getting a job

how does lower expectations explain why boys are underachieving

teachers more lenient with girls, extending deadlines, higher expectations for girls → lower expectations of boys creates a SFP

how do different leisure activities explain why boys are underachieving

by spending time on different activities, boys engage in sports and computer games and girls more likely to talk or read → allowing them to relate to their peers

how does feminisation of education explain why boys are underachieving

Sewell argues school no longer embodies traditional masculine traits → also, lack of male role models means school is becoming more ‘feminised’

how many primary school teachers are male

1 in 6

what do some sociologists believe

the rise of female headed lone families contributes to boys underachievement

how does dislike of reading explain why boys are underachieving

boys see reading as feminine, compared to girls who enjoy it → more likely to read to children and act as positive role models of the same sex

boys tend to lose interest in reading by the age of…

8

overall, what does this mean for girls

they are better at handling and grasping reading in literate subjects

in conclusion, are boys really that much worse than girls

no, the performance of both sexes has improved considerably recently

what may have a more substantial impact

class → pupils of different classes tend to get widely different results

3 policies to try and raise boys achievement

• raising boys achievement project → range of teaching strategies including single sex teaching

• national literacy strategy → focus on improving boy’s reading

• playing for success → uses football and sports to boost learning skills and motivation amongst boys

what 6 factors are involved with pupils’ sexual and gender identities

• double standards

• male peer groups

• verbal abuse

• female peer groups

• male gaze

• teachers and discipline

what is a double standard

when you set one set of moral standards to one group and a different set to another group

what does Sue Lees (1993) identify

a double standard of sexual morality → boys boast of sexual exploits, but call girls ‘slags’ for the same thing

what is this the perfect example of

patriarchal ideology justifying male power and devaluing women to control them

how do male peer groups create divisions in school

use verbal abuse to reinforce their definitions of masculinity

what justifies this

epstein and willis’ studies on anti school subcultures

what does martin mac an ghail’s (1994) study identify

how peer groups reproduce a range of class-based masculine gender identities (working class ‘macho boys’, middle class ‘dickhead achievers’ or ‘real englishmen’ → project image of ‘effortless achievement’ of success without trying

what did redman and mac an ghaill (1997) find

the dominant definition of masculine identity switches from ‘macho’ in lower secondary to ‘real Englishmen’ in sixth form

what does this represent

shift to more middle class composition of sixth form

impact of verbal abuse on pupils’ sexual and gender identities

reinforces gender and sexual identities

what did Paetcher find

name-calling helps maintain gender control → negative labels ‘gay’, ‘queer’ abd ‘lezzies’

who argues the impacts of female peer groups on gender and sexual identities

archer, jessica ringrose, currie et al.

what did archer say

w.c. girls gain symbolic capital by presenting themselves as a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity

who polices this

female peers → girls risk unpopularity if they fail to conform

what did jessica ringrose find in her small scale study

13-14yo w.c. girls in south wales → popularity very important. girls must choose between an idealised feminine identity or a sexualised identity