EVERYTHING

Power distance

Extent to which different cultures accept and maintain power and status differences between people.

• High = organizations are highly hierarchical and develop rules, mechanisms and rituals to reinforce status and power relations.

  • China, Russia, Saudi Arabia.

• Low = organizations are more egalitarian and minimize rules and customs.

  • USA, Canada, Scandinavia, UK.

Individualism / Collectivism

Degree to which individuals are integrated into groups.

• Individualistic = individuals care for themselves and their immediate family.

  • people value personal achievement and individual rights.

• Collectivistic = individuals are integrated into strong, cohesive groups that protect them in exchange for loyalty.

  • emphasis on group harmony, cooperation and collective well-being.

    • people prioritize group goals and conformity over personal achievement. 

Masculinity / Femininity

Extend to which cultures promote or maintain gender differences in work-related values (ex. competition).

• Masculine = emphasis on competition, achievement, success and material rewards.

  • clear distinction between gender roles → men expected to be assertive, women expected to be caring.

• Feminine = emphasis on cooperation, caring for others and quality of life.

  • gender roles are fluid → both men and women expected to shar caring responsibilities. 

Uncertainty avoidance

Extend to which different cultures develop ways of dealing with fear and stress of uncertainty.

• High = preference for structured environments, clear rules and predictable outcomes.

  • low tolerance for ambiguity, risk-averse behaviour is common.

    • organizations have strict rules, policies and rituals to manage uncertainty.

• Low = more relaxed about change and unpredictability.

  • people are comfortable with ambiguity, innovation and risk-taking.

    • organizations have fewer formal rules and are more open to flexibility.

Long-term orientation vs. Short-term orientation

Degree to which cultures value long-term, forward-looking planning vs. short-term, immediate results.

• Long-term = prioritize perseverance and adaptation to changing circumstances.

  • value future rewards, long-term commitments and nurturing relationships more than quick results.

• Short-term = focus on traditions, immediate results and maintaining social obligations.

  • more emphasis on present and past than future long-term goals.

Indulgence vs Restraint

Degree to which societies allow relatively free gratification of basic human urges related to enjoying life and having fun.

• Indulgent = people are free to express their desires, enjoy life and engage in leisure activities.

  • emphasis on individual happiness and well-being, fewer restrictions on behavior.

• Restrained = suppress the satisfaction of desires and regulate behavior through strict social norms.

  • people feel less free to enjoy life, more likely to adhere to social expectations.

Minkov (2017) raised 4 questions about Hofstede’s IMB model

1. Do IBM workers represent national cultures? Do values replicate with other groups?

   1. No, IBM employees are not representative of the general population in other countries.

2. Do the questionnaires measure values correctly?

   1. The individualism index was used to measure individualism, but it does not match the definition of individualism used in this model.

3. Is cultural variation meaningful?

   1. No, individuals differ more within countries than between countries.

4. Ecological fallacy: be careful about interpretation

   1. Inferring individual behavior from country-level data is problematic → differences within countries may be greater than differences between countries.

Oyserman’s study

Differences between countries remain relatively small. 

Which dimensions of Hofstede’s IBM model have been replicated? Which ones have not?

• YES = individualism/collectivism and power distance.

• NO = uncertainty avoidance and masculinity/femininity.

Organizational culture

The dynamic information system of attitudes, values, beliefs, norms and behaviors within the organization that are transmitted to generations.

Organizational climate

Refers to how employees perceive and share policies, practices and procedures within the organization. 

• A distinction can be made in an employee’s commitment to an organization.

Culture and person-organization fit

Good match between person and culture of an organization if their values match (they will be satisfied and more committed) and when they identify more with their organization.

• BUT the fit is less important when employees have few job choices.

2 forms of Organizational commitment

• Normative commitment = extent to which an individual’s relationship with an organization is driven by a sense of obligation and duties.

• Affective commitment = the personal feelings and emotional attachment a person toward their relationship with an organization.

Occur in all cultures, but more important in collectivistic cultures.

Organizational commitment in collectivistic cultures

Boundaries between colleagues are less strict, and tasks and obligations are given more weight. 

• Related to psychological contracts

Psychological contracts

The mutual expectation between the organization and employees about obligations.

• Work has different meanings in different cultures: for some it is a means to an end, to others it is seen as an obligation.

Bamboo ceiling effect

People of Asian descent are less likely to be in positions of power in countries such as the USA.

Social loafing

The decrease in productivity as the size of the group increases.

• USA.

Social striving

The increase in productivity once the group gets bigger.

• Japan

High power distance has what style of decision-making and interaction?

Autocratic or paternalistic.

• Strict supervision that is seen positively by submissive employees.

Low power distance countries have what style of decision-making and interaction?

Participatory and consensual.

• Strict supervision is perceived negatively by employees.

Paternalistic leadership (Sinha, 1979)

Hierarchical relationship where the superior person provides guidance and nurturing and the submissive responds with loyalty.

• The leader behaves as a father figure and role model, both participatory and authoritative. 

  • There is no clear boundary between work and private life. 

• Non-Western cultures

Bapakism

= Father, paternalistic leadership style in Indonesian culture.

Goal that is the same to every leader

Task performance and group retention.

• Global technological and industrial practices make this possible across cultures.

Oligarchies

A limited number of people make decisions (often in large companies).

Oligarchies are a [top-down/bottom-up] approach

Top-down → Western context.

Oligarchies are a form of [collectivism/individualism] with a [high/low] power distance.

• Individualism

  • High

Ringi

A Japanese process of decision-making, where a proposal is circulated to all the people who will be affected by it, regardless of their status or position.

• Once consensus is reached, the proposal reaches the leaders of the organization, who formally approve it.

Nemawashi

The process of consensus where all people regardless of their status or position have a say in the proposal before it is sent to the leaders of the organization who formally approve it. 

Ringi/Nemawashi is more [individualistic/collectivstic] with [high/low] power distance.

• Collectivistic

  • Low

Equality

Whether your contributions are included in the decision-making process.

Equity

Whether a person’s demographic characteristics are considered in the decision process.

Distributive justice

The distribution of products such as salary or benefits is distributed equitably.

Procedural justice

The processes and procedures that organizations use for decision-making are fair.

Culture shock

The fear, confusion, doubt or nervousness that arises during the process of adapting to a new culture.

4 Phases of Culture shock

1. Honeymoon = positive, especially when voluntary; culture is fun and exciting.

2. Negotiation = more aware of the differences between old and new culture → can provoke frustration or fear = cultural shock.

3. Adaptation = they adapt to cultural routine of others.

4. Mastery = fear no longer exists, because they know how to deal with the new culture.

Reverse culture shock

After return: the cultural shock experienced upon returning to one’s own culture.

4 benefits of diversity

• Better quality decisions

• More creative

• Economic growth

• Intergroup and intercultural relations are more positive

Optimistic perspective of diversity

Information-processing approach:

• Diverse groups have more relevant information available to them through multiple available sources.

• These groups need to express and work through conflicting perspectives → reduces risk of groupthink.

• If groups combine their various recources, superior performance results.

Groupthink

Making polarized decisions, inclined toward the group’s perspective.

Pessimistic perspective on diversity

Social categorization perspective

• Diversity creates social division → harms cooperation.

• Similar-attraction theory: people are attracted to those they resemble.

• Social identity theory: people categorize themselves and others into groups, with which they identify and try to promote themselves → hinders intergroup relationships.

• More room for cultural misunderstandings. 

Diversity has which 2 sides?

• More creativity, increased performance, high-wuality decisions.

• More conflict, less effective communication and problematic intergroup relationships.

3 Solutions for two sides of diversity

• Putting different cultures can be problematic → Solve by increasing opportunities for cross-cultural contact and experience.

• In different cultures, people may be selected and promoted on bias → Avoid this by creating reduction bias with increase in opportunities to be transparent and accountable.

• Increased resistance, mistrust and conflict → Solve through promotion of inclusive multiculturalism, include all perspectives.

Meta-analysis examined discrimination related to being hired for a job → Same cover letter, different photo and name of applicant. Results?

Ratio 1:3 → non-Caucasian applicant has to send up to 30% more of their resume to be accepted.

Conformity

Surrendering to real or imagined social pressure.

• Often higher in collectivistic countries than individualistic countries, because group harmony is considered more important than individual opinions.

Compliance

Surrendering to social pressure regarding public behavior, but their own private beliefs have not changed. 

Obedience

Form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct orders, often from an authority figure.

Ash experiment on social influence and cooperation

Do you give the same right answer even if everyone around you gives a wrong answer?

• 37% gave in to peer pressure and still ended up giving the wrong answer.

  • This increased as the number giving a different answer increased.

• After many replications of this study and meta-analyses, 25% appeared to go along.

Milgram experiment on Obedience

Participants had to administer a shock if people answered a question incorrectly.

• Would the participant continue to administer the shocks even if they heard that the learner was in pain?

  • 65% continued to do so.

• Few replications and results very → It’s difficult to rule out cultural factors.

Cooperation

The human ability of people to work together toward a common goal, based on cognitive skills. 

• There are cultural differences due to the different systems of reinforcement and punishment in countries.

  • Punishment may encourage more cooperativeness in high-trust communities compared to low-trust communities. 

Social mindedness

Small acts of interpersonal kindness (ex. stepping on the sidewalk when someone wants to pass).

• Studies of industrialized countries show that more socially minded countries show more pro-social orientations and implementation of environmental protection.

• There is cooperation regarding global problems.

  • But is this really the case?

    • Yes, wealthier countries score higher on both societal attitudes and implementation of environmental protection.

Scale of environmental protection

Measures the measures taken to combat climate change, of which greenhouse gases are only a small part.

• Rich countries have more resources to combat it → not necessarily how much they do or not contribute to it.

  • This is not a good way to measure global cooperation.

Ecological fallacy

At the individual level, the relationship between societal attitude and environmental protection is null.

A distinction between ingroups and outgroups

• Ingroups: people with whom we have a history of shared experiences, probably also share a future together, and with whom we experience a degree of intimacy, familiarity and trust.

• Outgroup: people who lack qualities of the ingroup.

Ingroup derogation/divergence

When a person has a negative attitude toward his own ingroup.

Infrahumanization

The belief that others are less human, and we ocmpare them to animals or objects.

• The perception of outgroups is associated with this. 

  • ex. people throwing bananas at the first Italian minister of color. 

Different cultures attribute different meaning to the origin and function of self-ingroup and self-outgroup relationships.

Relational mobility

The freedom and opportunities you get to choose and live with interpersonal relationships, including from another group.

• Countries with higher relational mobility report more interpersonal behavior and psychological tendencies for maintaining good relationships.

Stereotypes

A generalized view of a particular group of people, which can either be positive or negative. 

Negative stereotypes about outgroups are developed based on …

The ethnocentric view of the world.

When will a person form a negative evaluation?

When someone does something that does not fit the rules of behavior a person knows (expectation violation).

Heterostereotypes vs. Autostereotypes

• About other groups.

• About one’s own group. 

Confirmation bias

Involved in stereotypy, ignoring what contradicts their view and assuming what would reinforce it.

Collective threat

The fear that an ingroup member’s behavior may reinforce negative stereotypes about their own group.

Ethnocentrism

The tendency to view the world through one’s own cultural filters.

• Everyone is ethnocentric: through acculturation we learn what is right and appropriate in our society, and what is abnormal and wrong. 

Prejudice

The assessment of individuals based on membership in a particular group.

• Cognitive component = a stereotype.

• Affective component = feelings toward the group.

Discrimination

The unfair treatment of others based on group membership.

• Discrimination can be explicit or implicit.

• Can lead to many negative consequences, such as lower life satisfaction, depression or anxiety disorders.

Explicit prejudice and racism

Implicit biases

Unconscious biases. 

Is there an implicit association between people of color and monkeys in contemporary USA?

This implicit association is still present.

Can the activation of the monkey-color association justify violence toward people of color?

This implicit association is still present.

Are people of color described by monkey characteristics in the media more likely to be sentenced to death than others?

This implicit association is still present.

Difference Discrimination and Prejudice

Discrimination includes action.

• Prejudice is only thoughts.

Interpersonal discrimination

The unfair treatment of others based on group membership.

• Assuming that someone is knowledgeable about something because they have the same ancestry (ex. assuming that every Muslim supports ISIS).

Institutional discrimination

Occurs at the level of a large group, society, organization or instituation.

Honor cultures

Where norms and values are high around upholding good reputation and social status. 

• When this reputation is threatened by insult or threat, reason for violence arises. 

Micro-aggression (Sue, 2007)

Brief verbal, behavioral and environmental aggression that is derogatory, insulting and often racially motivated.

• Another way cultures experience aggression.

Contact hypothesis (Allport, 1954)

States that when contact occurs between groups, prejudice will be reduced.

• Only ‘good’ contact works to reduce prejudice: people in the two groups must have:

  • Equal status

  • Common goals

  • Cooperation between groups

  • Support of authorities

  • Laws or customs

  • Personal interaction

• If contact is not ‘right’, it can reinforce the stereotypes and thus prejudice.

  • ex. in Slavery, this hypothesis will not work until the idea of segregation is removed.

• This hypothesis underlies many interventions to reduce prejudice.

Meta-analysis by Petti-grew & Tropp (2006) on the contact hypothesis

Confirms that intergroup contact reduces prejudice, especially when the groups are equal. 

Egalitarian culture

Is founded on the belief in the fundamental equality of all people, which promotes equal rights, opportunities, and access within society for everyone, regardless of their background or status.

• Such cultures seek to reduce social and economic inequalities and encourages treating individuals with dignity and fairness, fostering cooperation rather than hierarchy.

A study by Kende & colleagues examined whether contact in egalitarian cultures causes a stronger reduction in prejudice.

In countries with more egalitarian cultures (ex. spain):

• Contact strongly reduced prejudice.

In less egalitarian countries:

• Contact sometimes led to more prejudice.

  • This is due to different perceptions during contact: majorities focuses on similarities (ex. “We are all Europeans”), while minorities emphasize inequalities & fear being prejudiced.

Methodogical concerns regarding the studies

• Heavy use of self-reporting.

• It can be that the contact interventions reduce prejudice, not the contact per se.

Study by Mousa (2020) among Christian and Muslim soccer players in Iraq.

Their explicit attitudes remained the same but showed less prejudice in their behavior.

5 structures of language

1. Lexicon: the words that make up a language.

2. Syntax and grammar: the system of rules about word forms and how words must fit together to give meaning.

3. Phonology: the system of rules about how words sound.

4. Semantics: the meaning of words.

5. Pragmatics: the system of rules about how language should be used and understood in a social context.

Self-other references

What do people call themselves and others (lexicon)?

• ex. English ‘you’ vs. French ‘vous’ and ‘tu’. 

What are the 2 types of pragmatics and the use of language in particular contexts according to Edward T. Hall?

• High-context communication: most of the information is within the person, there is little in the explicit part of the message.

  • How it is said is more important than what is said.

  • More sayings, reading between the lines and “silence is golden”.

• Low-context communication: most of the information is in the explicit code.

  • What is said is more important than how it is said.

  • Direct communication, “I mean what I say and I say what I mean”.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

States that speakers of different languages think differently because of the differences in their languages.

• Language affects cognition = linguistic relativity.

3 evidence against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

1. Berlin & Kay (1969): The 11 terms for the primary colors are universal in hierarchical terms.

• different cultures first distinguish between light and dark.

• Colors are gradually added by a fixed hierarchy.

• Color perception is universal and not dependent on language.

2. Pinker (1995): Thoughts can be formulated without words.

• Like experiencing emotions, for which we have no word.

3. Breugelmans & Poortinga (2006): Raramuri Indians in Mexico have only 1 word for shame and guilt. However, they do distinguish between the experience of shame and guilt.

Nonverbal communication: Gestures

Often reveal our intentions.

• Used to support speech = speech illustrations.

• There are culture-specific gestures that have some meaning without involving speech = emblems.

  • They can be culturally unique → but can cause problems if a person is not aware of the meaning of the specific emblem. 

Nonverbal communication: Glancing, touching, interpersonal distance

Often reveal our intentions.

• These forms of communication differ between cultures.

  • Contact cultures: people are used to eye contact, touching, and being close to each other.

  • Proxemics: use of space in interpersonal relationships → some cultures maintain more distance.

Nonverbal communication: Voice sound

Often reveal our intentions.

• Our voice has its own characteristics called para-linguistic cues, such as tone, intonation, speed or volume. 

  • ex. More expressive cultures will be louder than non-expressive cultures. 

Communication consists of 5 things; what are they?

1. Message: the information and meaning exchanged when people communicate.

2. Encoding: the process by which people select, embed and signal information.

3. Signals: observable behaviors in which messages are encoded during communication.

4. Channels: specific sensory channels through which signals are sent and received (ex. speech and body language).

5. Decoding: process by which signals are received and translated into understandable messages.

Coding and decoding include cultural filters (ex. ethnocentrism, emotions, stereotypes etc.).

• People within cultures share certain coding and decoding rules → shared expectations.

What are the 2 ways in which Cultural communication can exist?

1. Intracultural communication: between people of the same cultural background.

2. Intercultural communication: between people of different cultural backgrounds. 

What are the obstacles in intercultural communication?

• Assumption of similarities

• Language differences

• Nonverbal misinterpretation

• Stereotypes

• Tendency to evaluate

• Stress and anxiety

• Uncertainty and ambiguity

These obstacles can create mismatches → we often assume that people are more or less the same as us and have the same expectations.

• This is not the case in cross-cultural communication. 

What are the 4 ways in which intercultural communication can be remedied?

1. Mindfulness: people are aware of their own habits, mental scripts and cultural expectations. Can be motivation, knowledge or skills related: do we have them?

2. Uncertainty reduction: process by which people try to reduce the uncertainty and stress of intercultural communication.

3. Face: be aware of your own face and its preservation.

• Face is the concern that comes with your own presentation in public and the possible embarrassment that may arise in the process.

4. Emotion regulation: the skill of controlling your negative emotions that makes you more cooperative in constructive intercultural processes.

Frame-switching (M5)

Switching between meaning system when language is switched. 

Study on bilingual participants who were asked to complete the Big Five Inventory in Chinese or English.

Results: when completed in English, they scored higher on openness, extraversion and assertiveness.

Study on whether bilingual participants would behave differently when they were interviewed by a Caucasian and Chinese interviewer, who conducted it in both Chinese and English (a total of 4 interviews conducted).

Results: the spoken language does make a difference in the outcome of the personality test.

• Especially for the Chinese interviewer who spoke Chinese, the results were much lower than those of the Caucasian interviewer who spoke English. 

Advantages of being bilingual for cognitive tasks

• Exposure to multiple languages in the environment would accelerate effective communication.

• Better able to select their attention to stimuli.

  • Seen in children, where they visually track the switching of language between bilingual adults during a soundless video, where monolingual children cannot.

BUT: these advantages only exist in laboratory settings or are environment specific.

What are the 4 indicators of health?

• Life expectancy

• Infant mortality (number of infants who die per 1k live births.

• Obesity

• Subjective well-being

How is subjective well-being related to physical health?

Higher SWB is associated with a

• stronger immune system

• fewer heart attacks

• healthier lifestyle