bio 198 module 7 ksu

Asymmetry

no pattern

Radial

any plane cut along up-down. 2 germ layers, endoderm inside, ectoderm outside. Ex, starfish

segmented

repeating parts

Bilateral

vertical, mirror image. 3 germ layers, inner layer (endoderm), outer layer (ectoderm), and a middle layer (mesoderm)

endoderm

innermost lining of internal organs, in the digestive tract, the liver, the pancreas and the lining of the lungs.

mesoderm

organs and tissues in an adult animal such as the kidney, heart, muscles, blood vessels, bones and the dermis (inner layer of skin)

ectoderm

the outermost layer of cells or tissue of an embryo in early development, or the parts derived from this, which include the epidermis and nerve tissue.

Pseudocoelom

"false" body cavity, fluid filled space not fully lined by mesoderm

acoelomate

no body cavity

coelom

body cavity

segmentation

organisms repeating body parts, greater flexibility and mobility

cephalization

bilateral animals, concentration of nerve tissue in their front end or head, around mouth of heterotroph so it can find food

Epithelial tissues

protection, absorption, secretion. Ex-lines lungs

Connective tissues

protection and support of other tissues. Ex-blood, bone, cartlidge

Nervous tissues

made of cells to receive electrical impulses from specific areas of

the body, interpret those signals, and send responses to specific locations in body.

muscle tissues

move parts of bones, pump blood, move material to organs, smooth, skeletal, cardiac

smooth muscle tissue

no striations, single nuclei in center, involuntary control, forms walls of hollow internal organs like stomach, intestines, bladder, and blood vessels

skeletal muscle tissue

striations, many nuclei, voluntary control, attached to bones

cardiac muscle tissue

striations, single nuclei in center, involuntary control, heart

aerobic respiration

Glucose is absorbed in the small intestine and transported by the bloodstream. Oxygen enters the body through lungs, diffuses into the blood, and binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells. The circulatory system delivers glucose and oxygen to cells. CO₂ is transported back to the lungs and exhaled. Occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria.

incomplete digestive system

one opening for ingestion and waste removal. Cnidarians and

Flatworms

complete digestive system

two openings for digestion and waste removal.

Mouth

saliva begins chemical digestion of carbohydrates

Stomach

Chemical digestion of proteins. acid kills microbes

Small intestine

Most digestion and nutrient absorption

Liver

Produces bile, processes nutrients

Gallbladder

Stores and releases bile

Pancreas

Produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate

Large intestine (colon)

Absorbs water and electrolytes

Accessory organs

salivary glands, the liver, the pancreas, and the gallbladder all add enzymes

mechanical digestion

chewing

chemical digestion

enzymes break macromolecules into monomers

amylase

carbohydrates

lipases

fats

ingestion

taking food in through mouth

digestion

mechanical and chemical break down of food into small organic molecules

Bile

produced by liver, breaks down fat

Lipase

break down lipids into fatty acids

Minerals

inorganic essential nutrients that must be obtained from food.

vitamins

organic molecules that are required in small quantities for many enzymes to function

Describe the relationship between breathing and cellular respiration

Breathing (physical gas exchange) supplies the oxygen (O₂) needed for cellular respiration and removes the carbon dioxide (CO₂) produced

coronary

serve the heart

pulmonary

serve the lungs

systemic

serve the body

open circulatory system

insects, arthropods. pump a fluid called hemolymph into body cavities, less energy, less efficient

closed circulatory system

humans, vertebrates. keep blood in arteries, veins, higher pressure, allowing fast flow and efficient oxygen delivery

Red blood cells/erythrocytes

carry oxygen using hemoglobin

white blood cells/leukocytes

responding to potential pathogens

platelets/thrombocytes

blood clotting

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

Sensory neuron

touch, pain receptors in your skin and the photoreceptors in your retina

motor neuron

muscles, controlling movement, speaking, swallowing, and breathing

Synapse

connection between nerve cells

resting membrane potential

more NA+ on outside, more K+ inside

Action potential

NA+ rush in, K+ rush out

Mechanoreceptors

Sensory receptors that detect movement or pressure (hearing and touch)

Reflex Arc

A fast, automatic response pathway that includes a sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron.

Sensory Neuron

Carries signals from a receptor to the spinal cord.

Interneuron

Processes information in the spinal cord or brain.

Motor Neuron

Carries signals from the spinal cord to a muscle or gland.

Immunity

The ability of the body to resist and fight infections.

Innate Immunity

Non-specific defenses present at birth that respond quickly to pathogens.

Adaptive Immunity

Specific defenses that develop after exposure and target particular pathogens.

Virus

A nonliving infectious particle made of genetic material and a protein coat.

Why Viruses Are Not Living

They cannot reproduce or carry out metabolism without a host cell.

Viral Replication

Viruses attach to host cells, insert genetic material, and use the host to make new viruses.

Viral Evolution

Viruses evolve rapidly due to mutations during replication.

Beneficial Effects of Viruses

Used in vaccines, gene therapy, and research.

Harmful Effects of Viruses

Cause diseases such as flu, COVID-19, and HIV.

Innate Immunity Barriers

Skin, mucous membranes, stomach acid, and enzymes.

Innate Internal Defenses

Inflammation, fever, phagocytic cells, and antimicrobial proteins.

Antibodies

Proteins that bind to specific antigens to neutralize pathogens.

Antibody Production

Made by B cells in the adaptive immune system.

Cell-Mediated Immunity

Immune response involving T cells that destroy infected or abnormal cells.

Immunological Memory

The ability of the immune system to remember past infections.

Vaccines

Weakened or inactive pathogens that stimulate immune memory without causing disease.

Leukocytes

White blood cells that protect the body from infection.

Types of Leukocytes

Include macrophages, neutrophils, B cells, and T cells.

Lymphatic System

A network of vessels, nodes, and organs that transport lymph and support immunity.

Lymph Nodes

Structures that filter pathogens and house immune cells.

Challenges of Terrestrial Life

Preventing water loss, supporting body weight, breathing air, and reproducing without water.

Terrestrial Adaptations

Waterproof skin, lungs, strong skeletons, and internal fertilization.

Hydrostatic Skeleton

Uses fluid pressure for support; flexible but weak.

Exoskeleton

Hard external covering; strong but limits growth.

Endoskeleton

Internal skeleton; grows with the organism and supports large size.

Smooth Muscle

Involuntary muscle found in organs like intestines.

Cardiac Muscle

Involuntary muscle found only in the heart.

Skeletal Muscle

Voluntary muscle attached to bones for movement.

Sarcomere

The basic unit of muscle contraction.

Actin Filaments

Thin filaments that slide during muscle contraction.

Myosin Filaments

Thick filaments that pull actin.

Sliding Filament Theory

Muscle contraction occurs when actin slides past myosin.

ATP in Muscle Contraction

Provides energy for muscle movement.

Calcium Ions

Trigger muscle contraction by allowing actin and myosin to interact.

System Integration

Nervous, sensory, muscular, and skeletal systems work together to produce movement.

Osmoregulation

Control of water and solute balance in the body.

Water Conservation

Adaptations that reduce water loss in terrestrial environments.

Kidneys

Organs that filter blood and regulate water, salts, pH, and waste.