UNIT 1.1: DEVELOPMENTS IN EAST ASIA

• When Han dynasty fell, Confucianism fell too and their cultural harmony was fractured, starting with the Tang dynasty, Confucianism experienced a revival which was carried into Song rule; had Buddhist and Daoist philosophical ideas

  ^ The revival of Confucianism demonstrates historical continuity between ancient China and the Song period + innovation

Main ideas of Confucianism:

A philosophy that taught human society is hierarchical by nature; there is a prescribed and proper ordering for everything

Filial piety: emphasized the need for children to obey and honor their parents, grandparents, and deceased ancestors

How Song rulers maintained and justified their rule:

1. Song Dynasty emphasized Confucianism with a new type called Neo-Confucianism (a revival of Confucianism from the Tang Dynasty which came right before the Song) which had many changes and the main one was that Neo Confucianism sought to rid Confucian thought of the influence of Buddhism which had influenced it significantly in the prior centuries.

2. A bureaucracy is a governmental entity arranged in a hierarchical fashion that carries out the will of the emperor. During the Song Dynasty, the Imperial Bureaucracy grew in size allowing them to maintain their rule by having men take and pass a Civil Service Examination to get a job that was heavily based on Confucian Classics. This system ensured that Bureaucratic jobs were earned on the basis of MERIT —> most qualified people got the jobs.

Women’s role in Song China:

Women were regulated to the subordinate position

I. Stripped of legal rights - When a woman got married, her property became her husband's and widows could not remarry

II. Endured Social restrictions - Only had access to limited education and made to endure the practice of foot binding; could not walk easily and showed status symbol among elite

• China and Korea were able to maintain a tributary relationship because from time to time Korean officials would visit the Song court and acknowledge China’s power, as a result the Chinese influenced Korea: Korean court used a similar Civil service examination to staff their Bureaucracy, adopted many Confucian principles which organized their family structures, and further marginalized the role of women —> Chinese influence affected ELITE members of Korean society

• Japan adopted cultural traits from the Chinese VOLUNTARILY compared to Korea and Vietnam who had the threat of invasion: adopted Chinese Buddhism/writing system, and the Imperial Bureaucracy

• Vietnam and China had a tributary system: elite members of Vietnam society adopted Confucianism, Buddhism, Chinese literary techniques, and Civil service examination system

  ^ did not marginalize women as much as China; had a female Buddha

Buddhism in Song China

• Buddhism spread to China, with different branches emerging, including Mahayana Buddhism and Theravada Buddhism.

  • Theravada: original form, restricted to monks only for a select few

  • Mahayana: Buddhist teachings were available to all, emphasized compassion, made the Buddha into an object of devotion

  • Tibetan: emphasized more mystical practices (lying prostrate, elaborate imaginings of deities)

• Although the Song dynasty made it their policy to emphasize more traditional Chinese ideas, like Confucianism, Buddhism continued to play a significant role in their society, the Chinese developed their own type of Buddhism called Chan Buddhism

Economy in Song China

• Commercialization of economy: China produced more goods than they needed to survive and sold the extra on the World Market + used more paper money

• Iron and Steel production: Both large scale manufacturers and artisans were producing enough iron/steel to create all the suits of armor needed for war, coins for trade, and agricultural tools

• Innovations in agriculture: Introduction of Champa rice from Champa kingdom in Vietnam, drought resistant, could be harvested twice a year, and this led to a population explosion

• Transportation innovations: Expanded the Grand Canal which linked the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers and made trade among different regions much cheaper

  ^ Magnetic compass - improved navigation on the water, further facilitated sea based trade among different regions

  ^ New shipbuilding techniques - Song engineers improved designs of trade ships called junks by creating stern mounted rudders which made navigation more accurate resulting in more trade among various regions, leading to MORE economic prosperity in the Song Dynasty

UNIT 1.2: DEVELOPMENTS IN DAR AL - ISLAM

• Judaism (originated in the Middle East)

  • Monotheistic religion practiced by the Jews

  • Influenced the development of Christianity and Islam

• Christianity

  • Established by Jesus Christ, a Jewish Prophet

  • Followers spread the message of salvation by grace

  • Early Christians initially persecuted minority, later adopted by the Roman Empire (most significant influence of Christianity)

  • Influenced the organization of states in Europe and Africa

• Islam

  • Founded by the Prophet Muhammad (7th century, Arabian Peninsula)

  • Taught salvation through righteous actions (almsgiving, prayer, and fasting)

  • Spread rapidly throughout the Middle East, Africa, and Europe

  • Facilitated trade and led to the rise of prosperous Islamic states

New Islamic states arise

• Abbasid Caliphate (8th century): ethnically Arab + in power during Golden Age of Islam (innovations/advancements) → declined → new Islamic empires rose in its place (made up of TURKIC people)

1. Seljuk Empire - established in the 11th century in Central Asia; pastoralists who were brought in by the Abbasids as a professional military force to expand empire and culturally integrate their empire by force but by the 1200s, the Seljuk warriors began to gain more power for themselves —> in the end, the Abbasid caliphs were still in power and claimed to speak for all of Islam, but the Seljuks had the most political power

2. Mamluk Sultanate - established in Egypt, prior to the Mamluk takeover, the Ayyubid Sultanate ruled Egypt under the rule of Saladin and in order to advance the rules of his state, he needed more laborers so he enslaved a group of fierce Turkic warriors (Mamluks: enslaved person), later Saladin dies and the Turkic Mamluks seized power giving rise to another Turkic Muslim state

3. Delhi Sultanate - established in South Asia, the invading Turks established a Muslim state in the North and ruled over the Indian population for around 300 years

• As the Arab Muslim empires like the Abbasid declined, new Muslim empires made up of Turkic people were on the rise, however these new empires resembled the old empires:

  1. Military in charge of administration

  2. Implemented Sharia law (code of laws established in the Qur’an)

Continued spread of Islam

• Military Expansion: Delhi Sultanate

• Merchant Activity (trade): Ex - North Africa ruled by Muslims who stimulated trade throughout Africa → Mali converted to Islam

• Muslim Missionaries (Sufis): Sufism - emphasized mystical experience, and was available to anyone (significant force for the spread of Islam worldwide)

Intellectual innovations and transfers

• Mathematics (Nasser): Invented Trigonometry to better understand how planets/stars move through the sky

• House of Wisdom: Established in Baghdad during the Golden Age of Islam (library to study religion, scholars responsible for preserving philosophy by Plato and Aristotle)

  • Translated them into Arabic and made extensive commentaries, works would’ve been lost forever → translations went to Europe, became the basis for the Renaissance

UNIT 1.3: STATE BUILDING IN SOUTH & SOUTHEAST ASIA

• Hinduism: Polytheistic belief system, adherents to many gods and not just one which sets them apart from Monotheistic religions such as Islam or Judaism. Ultimate goal of believers is to reunite their souls to the all pervasive world soul known as Brahman. This provided the conditions for a unified culture in India by structuring Indian society according to a Caste system. (most virtuous on top)

• Buddhism: Founded in India and rejects the Hindu caste system due to the belief that everyone is equal, by the 1200s Buddhism was not as prominent in India

• Islam: In 1206, Turkic Muslim invaders came into South Asia and set up a Muslim empire (Delhi Sultanate), as Buddhism declined, Islam rose up and became the second most important belief system in India. Because Muslims were in charge in large parts of India, it became the religion of the elite and eventually spread to Southeast Asia

Change in belief systems

• Hinduism: Bhakti Movement arose which is a form of Hinduism that encourages believers to worship one particular god in the Hindu pantheon of gods, rejected the Hindu hierarchy, and encouraged spiritual experiences to all regardless of social status.

• Islam: Rise of Sufism - more mystical, spiritual experience based version

• Buddhism: Despite the original teachings of the Buddha emphasizing access to Enlightenment for all people, by this time in South Asia, it had become more and more exclusive

State building in South Asia

• Muslims established the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 in Northern India, however, Muslim rulers in the Delhi Sultanate had trouble imposing Islam on India because Hinduism was too entrenched socially and culturally, so Islam remained a minority religion here. The Rajput kingdoms which was a collection of rival and warring Hindu kingdoms that existed before Muslim rule in Northern India, over time some of them were conquered by Muslim rulers, but many remained independent. A new Hindu empire was also founded in the South (Vijayanagara empire) —> Muslim sultans in the North wanted to expand the rule of the Delhi Sultanate to the South, so they sent a group of emissaries but these emissaries were originally Hindu and after they got away from the Muslim overlords, they established this rival Hindu empire.

State building in Southeast Asia

note: when a state is sea-based or land-based, it’s talking about whether it gets their power from the sea or the land

• Sea-based states

  • Srivijaya Empire: Buddhist but influenced by Indian Hindu culture

    • Had control over the Strait of Malacca (main power source) → imposed taxes on ships passing by

  • Majapahit Kingdom (Java): originally a Hindu kingdom, but had strong Buddhist influences

    • Maintained power: Created a tributary system among the states in the region

• Land-Based States

  • Sinhala Dynasties (Sri Lanka): Buddhist state

  • Khmer Empire: founded as a Hindu empire

    • Prosperous state and created a Hindu building (Angkor wat) → represented the entire Hindu universe

    • Khmer rulers converted to Buddhism and added Buddha’s all over the temple

    • note: blending of religions = syncretism

UNIT 1.4: STATE BUILDING IN THE AMERICAS

• Maya civilization (250-900 CE):

  • Built urban centers, had the most sophisticated writing systems, and used the concept of 0

  • State structure was a decentralized collection of city states that were constantly at war with each other

  • Fought to create a vast network of tributary states among neighboring regions (local powers conquered by the Maya remained independent but were required to send tribute payments to the Maya including textiles, military weapons, and building materials

  • Emphasized human sacrifice (believed the sun was a deity)

• Aztec empire (1345-1528):

• CONTEXT

  • Mexica people (semi-nomadic) who migrated South and built their military prowess

  • By 1428, they consolidated a lot of power in the region → alliance with two other Mesoamerican states → established the Aztec empire

  • To secure their legitimacy as rulers → Mexica claimed heritage from older, more renowned Mesoamerican people

  • Expansion: War provided human blood for the Sun (religious motivation) + Tributary system

• Capital City: Tenochtitlan → held a vast population → Markets were established meaning their economy was commercialized to some degree + had palaces for rulers and pyramid temples

• Andean civilizations:

  • Wari (collapsed around 1000 CE): included in a series of societies that were developed along the Andes mountains

  • Inca (1400s): group of outsiders who because of their military prowess, rose up to power and expanded their empire rapidly, had centralized power and a large bureaucracy to ensure that the will of the empire was followed through all parts of the empire —> made requirements for the people they conquered but not tributary, but labor payments

    ^ Known as the Mit’a system (required the labor of all people for a period of time each year to work on state projects like mining or military service) + used systems made by older civilizations like the Wari such as road systems

• Mississippian culture (emerged around 8th/9th century CE)

  • Established in the Mississippi river valley and represented the first large scale civilization in North America

  • Had lots of fertile soil so society developed around farming

  • Political structure was dominated by powerful chiefs known as the Great Sun which ruled each town + extended political power over smaller satellite settlements —> thoroughly hierarchical

  • Known for their extensive mound-building projects → acted as burial sites for important people + hosted religious ceremonies on the top of the mountains

    • had enough people to construct these + major urban areas were surrounded by these

    • Cahokia → largest urban center of the Mississippian culture

  • Chako & Mesa Verde society

    • dry soil —> developed innovative ways of transporting and storing water

    • weren’t many trees to provide timber for structures → Chaco carved Sandstone blocks out of massive quarries, imported Timber from other locations, and built massive structures (largest in NA)

      • Mesa Verde solution to this → built housing complex into the sides of cliffs using sandstone

UNIT 1.5: STATE BUILDING IN AFRICA

• Swahili civilization:

  • Collection of independent city states which rose to prominence because of their strategic location on the coast which gave them access to the Indian Ocean trade

  • Merchants who arrived at the coast were interested in gold, ivory, timber, and enslaved people

  • Since these commercial city states focused mostly on trade, they imported many of the goods that they sold from farmers & pastoralists

  • Islam was a dominant belief system → Conversion among the Swahili elite took place voluntarily, this was good since it connected them to Dar-al-Islam

    • Islam influenced the Swahili language (hybrid between the Bantu languages and Arabic)

  • Both the Swahili civilization and Song China expanded wealth by participating in trade beyond their borders, had a hierarchical structure that organized society (china + confucianism / swahili + merchant elite but China also had a highly centralized power structure with the emperor on top and Swahili had decentralized power

• Great Zimbabwe:

  • Further inland but still got wealthy by participating in the Indian Ocean trade which they facilitated by controlling several ports on the coast, mainly exporting gold but their economic prosperity revolved around farming and cattle herding → with extra money, the rulers built the capital city (the largest structure in Africa) and represented the seat of power for the state

• Hausa kingdoms:

  • Collection of city states that were politically independent & gained power/wealth through trade along the Trans-Saharan trade network (resembled the Swahili civilization because they were both urbanized/ commercialized, and acted as middlemen for goods grown in the interior which they integrated into trade patterns with other states across West and North Africa + each state was ruled by a king who imposed a social hierarchy on their societies + rulers converted to Islam which further facilitated trade with Muslim merchants.

• African states during this period adopted Islam to both organize their societies and facilitate trade with the larger network present in the Dar al-Islam

• Ethiopia (christian):

  • Christian rulers built massive stone churches → communicated to their subjects who were in charge

  • (13th century) → Grew wealthy through trade (traded in the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean) + traded SALT (most valuable good)

  • Centralized power → King sat at top + class hierarchy below the king

UNIT 1.6: STATE BUILDING IN EUROPE

• Christianity in Europe

  • CONTEXT: In the Roman Empire → Constantine made Christianity the official state religion which united Romans (476 CE = Roman empire fell ☹ )

  • Byzantine Empire (eastern half of the Roman empire): kept Christianity alive in Europe

    • Eastern Orthodox Christianity → helped rulers justify and consolidate their power structure (highly centralized)

      • Roman Catholic Christianity

    • Byzantine got attacked by neighboring Islamic powers → lost a lot of territory BUT had a lot of influence still on Southwest Europe and East Mediterranean

    • 1453 → Ottoman Empire (muslim power) attacked the capital city: Constantinople and renamed it to Istanbul → END TO THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

  • Kievan Rus - adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity (before the fall of Constantinople)

    • Borrowed from Byzantine → alphabet, architectural style, using church structures to organize the state

  • Western Europe → isolated from the world (lots of Roman Catholicism in this region)

    • Church hierarchy (popes, bishops, cardinals) provided a common structure in states across Western Europe

    • Roman Catholic Church also made European Christians into a religious Fury → went to fight Muslims in distant lands (CRUSADES)

      • Europeans got beat up by Muslims (with the exception of the first crusade)

      • Islam and Judaism held important minority positions (EX: Iberian Peninsula, Muslims invaded and ran the place aka Muslim Rule in Europe + Jews were around Europe and participated in trade)

      • Christians were suspicious of Jews → anti-semitism (Jewish marginalization/persecution)

Political decentralization in the West

• Around this period, there were no large empires in Europe

  • In Western Europe, the social, political, and economic order was organized around a system known as feudalism (system of allegiances between powerful lords, monarchs, and kings)

    • Greater lords and kings gained allegiance from lesser lords and kings

    • Land was exchanged in order to keep everyone loyal

• Manorialism:

  Peasants also known as Serfs were bound to land and worked it in exchange for protection from the lord and his military forces, they were bound to the land

• Europe’s political structure began to change as monarchs in various states began to gain power and centralize their states by introducing large militaries and bureaucracies

  • With powerful monarchs on the rise, they were increasingly looking toward one another and competing for influence and territory which led to many wars of conquest

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UNIT 2.1: THE SILK ROADS

• The Silk Roads were a vast network of roads and trails that facilitated trade and the spread of culture/ideas across Eurasia in and before the period 1200-1450

  • Mainly luxury items such as Chinese silk because of how expensive it is to transport goods

• Causes of Silk Road expansion:

  • Innovations in commercial practices

    • Development of money economies

      ^ With the introduction of paper money to facilitate trade, a merchant could deposit bills in one location and then withdraw the same amount to another location thus increasing the ease & security of transactions

  • Increasing use of credit:

    • “Flying money” - Merchants could secure pieces of paper in one region then go to another region to exchange the paper for coins! → increased expansion and networks

  • Rise of banks

    • Banking houses (Europe) → bill of exchange (merchants receive the amount of money equal to the bill)

  • Rise of caravanserai

    • Series of inns and guesthouses spaces a day’s journey apart on the most frequently traveled routes where the traveler merchants and animals could lodge

      ^ Served two important functions: provided safety from plunderers and became centers of cultural exchange & diffusion

  • Saddles

    • Made transportation easier and more comfortable

  The Silk Roads Expand: EFFECTS

  • Effect #1 - New Trading Cities: located along the routes and had a lot of wealth

    • provided places to stop and resupply

    • Kashgar: convergence of major routes → suitable for agriculture because of water so merchants would stop by for water & food

      • With the increasing demand for interregional trade, Kashgar became a destination in itself hosting highly profitable markets and eventually became a thriving center for Islamic scholarship

    • Samarkand: strategically located at the convergence of major trade roads & cultural exchange occurs

  • Effect #2 - Increased demand for luxury items: chinese silk + porcelain

    • As demand for luxury items increased, Chinese, Indian, and Persian artisans increased their production of these goods

    • The shift to producing more luxury items for sale had significant impacts on their population

      • Ex. Peasants in China’s Yangtze River Valley spent more time producing silk textiles for trade and began to significantly scale BACK on food production but reorienting the economy like this created conditions in China for proto-industrialization: a process where China began producing MORE goods than their own population could consume, which were then sold in distant markets. With all this money coming back INTO the Chinese economy, they reinvested it into their iron and steel production.

  • Effect #3 - Cultural Diffusion:

    • Ex. Islamic merchants spread Islam and Buddhist merchants spread Buddhism

UNIT 2.2: THE MONGOL EMPIRE

(largest continuous land-based empire)

pastoral nomads: traveling people who moved depending on the season

• Rise of the Mongol Empire

  • Temujin: Mongol (pastoral nomads living in the Gobi Desert) + powerful leader + united the Mongol groups and named himself Chinggis Khan (Genghis Khan)

  • After he died, his sons who succeeded him kept expanding the empire → reached its peak in 1279

  • How did the Mongols who were outnumbered win so many of these victories?

    • Military organization: groups of 10k, 1k, 100, and 10 which made it more efficient to control + superior weaponry and skill (larger bows that shoot farther + skilled horse riders)

    • Lucky timing: The Song Dynasty recently lost control of its Northern territory and large states like the Abbasid empire were declining in power for a long time and it was the Mongols who brought it to an end with the destruction of Baghdad in 1258

    • Reputation for brutality: Mongol armies would slaughter almost everyone but left a few survivors to spread the ruthlessness, in some cases the Mongols wouldn’t have to fight because of the fear that occurred causing many people to surrender

• Pax Mongolica: peace experienced under about a century of Mongol rule

  • Chinggis Khan’s grandsons organized the empire into several khanates or military regions

  • Mongol rulers adopted a lot of the cultural norms of the people they ruled:

  • EX - Kublai Khan ruled over China and made the Yuan Dynasty → united warring factions, many Confucian elite believed he possessed the Mandate of Heaven

    • Mandate of Heaven: Ruler who brings peace must be the rightful ruler

    • Kublai Khan established himself as a confucian style ruler

• Mongols & Economics

  • The Silk Roads were never more organized and prosperous than they were under Mongol rule —> Mongols were responsible for keeping everyone safe within the Silk Roads

  • Improved infrastructure: built bridges and repaired roads

  • Increased communication: Yam system: a series of communication and relay stations spread across the empire

• Technological & Cultural Transfers

  • Mongols had a high opinion of intellectuals and skilled artisans —> didn’t kill them when they were conquering

    • Mongol policy: send skilled people to all different parts of the empire, the movement encouraged the transfer of technology, ideas, and culture

  • Medical Knowledge: Greek/Islamic scholars to Western Europe

  • Adoption of Uyghur Script: Their language (Chinggis Khan needed to have a Mongolian language)

• Despite their brutal rise, the Mongol empire facilitated many cultural transfers across various parts of Eurasia, but the Mongols fell out of power quickly —> as the Mongols left the world stage, many of the people who were under Mongol rule redoubled their efforts to install powerful, centralized leaders and create a unified culture —> paved the way for the rise of the modern world

UNIT 2.3: THE INDIAN OCEAN TRADE NETWORK

• Indian Ocean Trade: a network of sea routes that connected the various states throughout Afro-Eurasia through trade (cotton textiles, grains, and some luxury goods)

• Causes of Indian Ocean trade expansion:

  • Collapse of the Mongol Empire

    • When the Mongol Empire fell, so did the safety/ease along the Silk Roads and that led to a greater emphasis on maritime trade in the Indian Ocean

  • Innovations in commercial practices

    • Money economies & the ability to buy goods on credit made trade easier and therefore increased the use of these routes

  • Innovations in transportation technologies

    • Magnetic compass, lateen sail, knowledge of monsoon winds, and astrolabes

  • Increased spread of Islam

    • Islam was a belief system friendly to merchants, because Muhammad was a merchant → increased trade along sea-based routes

• Effects of the Growth of the Indian Oc. Network

  • Effect #1: Growth of powerful trading cities

    • Swahili city-states → built mosques that displayed their wealth + location was right on the Indian Ocean Trade

    • Malacca → controlled the Strait of Malacca which allowed them to have increased economic prosperity and expand their power throughout the region (taxed ships that passed through the Strait)

    • Gujarat → midpoint between east/southeast Asia and Africa, because of its massive coastline and rich agricultural areas inland, they were able to trade goods like cotton textiles and indigo in exchange for gold and silver coming from the Middle East + taxed ships going to → from its ports, increasing their wealth

  • Effect #2: Increased establishment of Diasporic Communities

    • Diasporic community (group of people from one place who establish a home in another place while retaining their cultural customs)

      • Chinese merchants established permanent communities in SE Asia and Arab/Persian merchants did the same in East Africa (acted as a “connective tissue” holding the Indian Ocean together and increasing its scope)

    • EX: Chinese merchants would arrive in ports around southeast asia and the diasporic chinese merchants living there would interact with the local merchants and the govt to facilitate trade

  • Effect #3: Cultural and Technological transfers (IMP!)

    • The cultural and technological exchanges that occur over trade routes are just as significant as the good exchanged over those routes (as merchants travel back → forth, they bring their religion, language, technology, etc.. with them and as they interact with other cultures those traits start to influence each other

    • EX: Zheng He was commissioned by China’s new Ming Dynasty to explore the Indian Ocean and enroll other states in China’s tributary system (on his first voyage there were many ships and crews that had the latest technology- gunpowder cannons- which were later adopted by many regions

UNIT 2.4: THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE NETWORK

• Trans-Saharan Network: a series of trade routes that connected North Africa and the Mediterranean world with interior West Africa and the rest of Sub-Saharan Africa (traded gold, kola nuts-good source of caffeine, horses, and salt)

• Causes of Trans-Saharan trade expansion:

  • Innovations in transportation technologies

    • camels + saddles + caravanserai -> merchants can travel more comfortably and more efficiently → expansion in Trans-Saharan Network

• Each region specialized in creating and growing various goods, and that difference created the demand to trade with each other, and created the occasion for the expansion of those networks

• Growth of Empires:

  • Empire of Mali: Established in the 13th century, but Islam was introduced hundreds of years earlier → when a state converts to Islam, they get connected into the economic trade partnerships throughout Dar al-Islam

    • That religious and economic connection meant that Mali, once it was established, grew exceedingly wealthy because of its participation in the Trans-Saharan trade network (Mali exported their own goods such as gold but also gained wealth and power by taxing other merchants traveling the trade routes through their territory

• Mansa Musa (Muslim Ruler): Embarked on the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) → left with a giant entourage + stopped in Egypt to resupply

  • In Egypt, Mansa Musa and his crew injected so much gold into the Egyptian economy that the value of all existing gold plummeted

  • With the expansion of Mali’s power under the influence of Mansa Musa → further monopolized trade between the North and the interior of the continent → increased the wealth of Mali + facilitating the growth of existing trade networks

UNIT 2.5: CULTURAL EFFECTS OF CONNECTIVITY

• Trade Networks & Diffusion:

  • Cultural transfers

    • EX. Buddhism spread from India → East Asia via the Silk Roads and as it took root among the Chinese, it changed over time (in order to make Buddhist teachings intelligible to the Chinese population, merchants and monks explained them in terms of Chinese Daoism, which was a belief system indigenous to China; syncretism Chan Buddhism)

  • Literary & Artistic transfers

    • EX. Muslim scholars translated and commented upon classical works of Greek and Roman philosophy at Baghdad’s House of Wisdom & eventually those works would be transported to Southern Europe where they would spark the Renaissance

  • Scientific and Technological innovations

    • EX. Chinese paper making technology spread to Europe along with moveable type which was adopted by Europeans and led to an increase in literacy / spread of gunpowder from China due to the Mongols → was adapted by Islamic Empires and European states

• Effect of Trade on Cities:

  • Hangzhou (Southern end of Grand Canal): one of China’s most significant trading cities → increased amount of trade let to urbanization + population growth

  • Samarkand and Kashgar (located along strategic routes of Silk Road): grew in power and influence by facilitating trade along them

• Merchants and MILITARY used these routes

  • CITIES IN DECLINE:

    • Baghdad (capital of Islamic cultural and artistic achievement): Mongols rose to power and sacked Baghdad, leading to a significant decline in the city + ended the Abbasid Empire

    • Constantinople (political and religious capital of Byzantine Empire): Ottomans rose to power and sacked Constantinople → renamed Istanbul

• Increased Interregional Travel:

  • Ibn Battuta (Muslim scholar from Morocco): over the course of 30 years, traveled all over the Dar al-Islam and wrote detailed notes about the places he visited, people het met, and cultures → made possible due to trade routes (sailed on merchant ships down the East Coast of Africa, rode on camels/merchant caravans across the Sahara desert, etc…

    • Battuta’s travels were important because he wrote about them and told great stories of the places he visited which helps his readers develop an understanding of far-flung cultures around the world

  • Marco Polo: traveled from Italy → China and throughout the Indian Ocean, wrote about Court of Kublai Khan and China’s magnificence and wealth

  • Margery Kempe (Christian mystics): made pilgrimages to Christianity’s holy sites & dictated her observations for others to write down → showed how Christianity was practiced across different cultures of Europe and the Middle East

UNIT 2.6: ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF CONNECTIVITY

• Diffusion of Crops/Agricultural Transfers

  • Bananas: first domesticated in SE Asia → merchants introduced to Africa (prime soil/weather for bananas) which led to an expansion of the people’s diets which led to population growth + various Bantu speaking people were able to migrate things bc of the banana → main source of sustenance were yams but were now able to move places where yam couldn’t grow because they could consume bananas

  • Champa Rice: China had a population EXPLOSION!

  • Citrus fruits: introduced by Muslim traders to Europe via Mediterranean trade route (spread throughout Europe/North Africa) → diets + better health

• Diffusion of Diseases

  • Bubonic Plague (Black Death): originated in Northern China → spread rapidly through Silk Roads and Indian Ocean Trade Networks due to Mongols keeping trading routes safe leading to an increased amount of trade and therefore the pace/ extent of trade

    • Killed nearly 1/3 of the Middle East population + around ½ of Europe’s population

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UNIT 3.1: LAND BASED EMPIRES EXPAND

note: before this period, two major divisions of Islam developed (Shi’a and Sunni) → argued who was the successor of Muhammad (Shi’a - Blood relative, Sunni - Elected)

• Gunpowder empires (came out on top)

  • expanding geographically

  • main cause of expansion: adoption of gunpowder weapons

• THE MAIN 4 GP EMPIRES

  • Ottoman Empire (most significant Islamic empire):

    • Expansion: controlled the Dardanelles (highly strategic chokepoint used to launch many campaigns of expansion) + adopted gunpowder weapons

      • Most of SW Europe and Anatolia was under Ottoman control, the most significant achievement of the Ottomans was the sack of of Constantinople (the heart of the Christian Byzantine Empire in 1453) Mehmed II and his army raided this city and renamed it to Istanbul (empire expanded)

  • Safavid Empire (formed from the ashes of previous Muslim empires):

    • The empire grew under the leadership of a sha named Ismail → declared his empire a Shi’a Muslim state (neighboring Sunni Muslim Empires - Ottomans & Mughals - viewed them with suspicion and hostility)

    • Shah Abbas expanded their military significantly & adopted gunpowder weapons

  • Mughal Empire (replaced the Delhi Sultanate):

    • Babur made use of an expanding military armed with gunpowder weapons to extend the geographic reach of his empire

    • Babur’s grandson, Akbar expanded it further → tolerant of religious beliefs (nice for majority Hindus who were ruled by Muslim forces) + masterful administrator → Mughal Empire became the most prosperous empire of the 16th cent.

  • Qing Dynasty

    • CONTEXT: With the decline of Mongol rule in China, a new dynasty was established (Ming dynasty) → ethnically Han; after the Mongols left they became a true Chinese dynasty again

      • Established peace and order throughout East Asia & expanded their borders with gunpowder weapons

      • By the 1500s, the Ming dynasty was fracturing due to internal divisions and external wars → Ming fell and Qing rises

    • Qing dynasty was established by the Manchu (not ethnically Han like the rest of China's pop.) people → took advantage of fractured Ming dynasty and set up their own

    • Qing rulers did a 40 year campaign to claim all former Ming territory (Taiwan/Mongolia)

• Rivalries between States:

  • Since all the empires were looking to expand further → eventually led to clashes w each other (caused by religion and politics)

    • EX. Safavid-Mughal conflict: a series of wars fought by the Safavid/Mughal empires who both sought to expand into the Persian Gulf in Central Asia → both claimed to be the rightful heir to Muslim dynasty → fought for years and no clear victor was established

    • EX. Songhai-Moroccan conflict: Songhai empire had expanded significantly in the 16th century and grown wealthy due to participation + partial control of the Trans-Saharan Trade Network → began to weaken due to internal problems → Moroccan kingdom in the North saw weakness and wanted to have more control over trade routes controlled by the Songhai & enacted a surprise invasion and were able to invade Songhai and beat them with gunpowder weapons (Songhai had none)

UNIT 3.2: LAND BASED EMPIRES: ADMINISTRATION

note: Bureaucracy - body of govt officials responsible for administering the empire and ensures the laws are being kept

• Legitimizing & Consolidating Power:

  • Legitimize power: refers to methods the ruler uses to communicate to all their subjects WHO is in charge

  • Consolidate power: measures a ruler uses to take power from other groups and claim it for themselves

• #1 Bureaucracies & Militaries:

  • Large Imperial Bureaucracies (expanding empires = larger Bureaucracies to ensure these large empires are being properly administered)

    • EX. Devshirme System in the Ottoman Empire: a system by which the Ottomans staffed their Imperial Bureaucracy with highly trained individuals, most of which were enslaved (in their campaigns for territorial conquest in the Balkans, the Ottomans enslaved Christian boys who were sent to live with Turkish families so they could learn the language → sent to Istanbul for proper Islamic education → many ended up in the Ottoman military but the best were sent to work in the Ottoman Bureaucracy bc their elite education made them wise administrators of the empire)

  • Military Expansion (creating elite military professionals)

    • In the Ottoman Empire, the Devshirme system supplied elite soldiers that became known as the Janissaries (made of enslaved Christians who formed the core of the Ottoman Empire which was increasing in size)

• #2 Religion, Art, and Architecture:

  • Religion & Power

    • EX. European Monarchs claimed to rule by Divine Right (king/queen ruled with the approval of Jesus) to oppose the king, you would be opposing Jesus

    • EX. Human Sacrifice (Aztecs): Mexica believed the Sun god lost energy, to gain power back for the Sun → human sacrifice (held public sacrifices to let everyone know who was in charge)

  • Art

    • EX. Qing Dynasty emperor Kangxi displayed Imperial portraits of himself around the city → convinced the Chinese the Kangxi was their legitimate ruler due to him depicted according to traditional Confucian values although the Qing weren’t ethnically Han (outsiders)

  • Architecture

    • EX. Palace of Versailles was built for the French monarch Louis XIV → massive size, let everyone know who is in charge

      • Louis also used palace to consolidate power by forcing French nobility to live there at least part time → removed their power

    • EX. Inca Sun temple in Cusco → Inca rulers were considered to be direct descendents of the gods, to facilitate festivals of worship Inca rulers built this temple whose walls were covered in sheets of gold and whose courtyard contained hundreds of golden statues → since rulers were associated with gods, buildings like this legitimize their power

• #3 Financing Military Expansion:

  • Zamindar System (Mughal Empire): since the Mughal rulers were Muslim while the majority of the South Asian pop. was Hindu, many had suspicion toward their Muslim rulers, to combat this, Mughal rulers employed local landowners called Zamindars to collect taxes throughout the empire on behalf of the emperor → extended Imperial authority & consolidated Imperial power

  • Tax Farming (Ottoman Empire): the right to tax subjects of the empire went to the highest bidder → whoever got the right, needed to collect taxes + collected more taxes than were legally required → Provided the Ottomans a good source of income

    • Tax farmers wren’t members of the official bureaucracy → ottomans didn’t have to pay them, they paid themselves by fleecing the people

UNIT 3.3: LAND BASED EMPIRES: BELIEF SYSTEMS

• Christianity in Europe

  • CONTEXT: Two Branches of Christianity: Eastern Orthodox Church + Roman Catholic Church (Great Schism of 1054)

  • By 1500, the Catholic Church had lots of power in Europe (Pope Leo X) → built massive structures

    • In order to fund all these projects, the church began the sale of indulgences (people could buy slips of paper which promised the forgiveness of sins) + Simony (practice of putting high church positions up for sale → people had a decreased confidence in the church)

    • Martin Luther (catholic monk): wrote the 95 theses (a series of complaints abt the corrupt practices in the church) → nailed to church door in Wittenberg → church excommunicated him → Luther spit church AGAIN (Protestant Reformation)

      • Luther used the printing press which allowed his writings to spread throughout Europe quickly

    • Church decided that the complaints might be right → initiated Catholic/Counter Reformation → church gathered in a series of meetings (Council of Trent) → tossed out many of the corrupt practices + Catholics reaffirmed their ancient doctrines

    • EFFECT: Various rulers across Europe either remained Catholic or imposed Protestantism upon the people they ruled → religious division led to a series of religious wars in Europe until 1648

• Islam in the Middle East

  • Safavids (Shia) vs Ottomans (Sunni): Ottomans got the upper hand → note: their political rivalry intensified the split between Shia and the sunni

• Changes in South Asia

  • Bhakti + Sufism = exchange and blending

  • Hindu + Islam = Sikhism

    • Sikhism demonstrates continuity continuity because it held onto significant doctrines of BOTH belief systems & also demonstrates change because as this new faith developed, many distinctions were discarded like caste system/gender hierarchies

UNIT 4.1: TECHNOLOGY IN SEA BASED EMPIRES

note: sea based empires were in Europe

• Adopted Technologies

  • #1 Magnetic Compass (developed in China & helped sailors with direction)

  • #2 Astrolabe (enabled ships to determine lat./long. by looking at the stars)

  • #3 Lateen Sail (triangular sail first dev. by Arab merchants allowed for more precise sailing)

  • #4 Astronomical charts (detailed diagrams of stars and constellations which helped sailors know exactly where they were)

    • Europeans did NOT INVENT these technologies, they ADOPTED them from other cultures through merchant interaction + trade routes

• European Innovations

  SHIPBUILDING

  • Caravel (Portugal): intentionally smaller which made them easier to navigate + had cannons

  • Carrack (Portugal): Portugal wanted to enact world domination so they needed to trade more, in order to do that large, could carry lots of cargo / guns were made

  • Fluyt (Dutch): dethroned the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean Trade because of the Fluyt - a ship designed EXCLUSIVELY for trade + had massive cargo hold/required much smaller crews and were cheap to make, eventually resp. for half of Europe’s shipping tonnage

UNIT 4.2: CAUSES OF EUROPEAN EXPLORATION

• State Sponsored Exploration

  • New era of sea-based empire building was state-sponsored → result of changes in the distribution of power in European states (recovered from black death, pop began to grow + monarchs started to consolidate their power away from nobility)

    • European Empires built up their militaries, learned how to use gunpowder weapons, and implemented more efficient ways to tax their people

  • A huge motivator for states sponsoring maritime exploration was the increasing desire for Asian spices (pepper)

    • Why? Pepper came from trade routes controlled by the land based empires and were expensive in Europe → Europeans tried to find ways to trade with states → began looking to the sea

• Portugal’s Trading Post Empire

  • Had no way to expand but the SEA

  • Prince Henry the Navigator sponsored the first European attempts to find an all water route → Indian Ocean Trade Network

  • Portugal’s motivations:

    • #1 Technology: caravel/carrack

    • #2 Economics: gold and spices

    • #3 Religious: growing desire to spread Christianity throughout the world after Portugal and Spain had reconquered the the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims + Prince Henry desired to find a fabled Eastern monarch (Prester John) - thought it was a good idea to connect Christian states in the West and East

  • Set up trading posts around Africa and the Indian Oc. → Vasco da Gama sailed and established more trading posts down South (found Calicut and found out the riches were greater → trading posts established around region)

    • The Indian Ocean Network incorporated many different merchants but when the Portuguese showed up they were determined to OWN the network, caravels and carracks that held many guns gave them an advantage making it easier for them to take over the network

  • Spain’s Sea based Empire

  • While Portugal was busy dominating the Indian Ocean, the Spanish monarchs (Ferdinand & Isabelle) wanted what Portugal had

  • Christopher Columbus → had an idea to sail westward to access the Spice Islands quicker (Isabelle/Ferdinand agreed)

    • 1492: Him and his crew reached the Caribbean islands (thought they were the Spice Islands) → Europe discovered two huge continents (North/South America)

  • After this discovery, Spain sponsored other explorers

    • Ferdinand Magellan: sailed to the actual east indies

    • Spanish sent fleets to the Americas to colonize and conquer → opened up the transatlantic trade which was more successful than the Indian ocean TN

• Other States’ Exploration

  • Causes for exploration

    • Political Rivalry

    • Envy

    • Desire for wealth

    • Need to find alt. sailing routes → Asia

  • France

    • Sponsored an expedition seeking a westward passage to the Indian Oc. → explored more portions of NA and established themselves there → gaining access to the fur trade → 1608, Samuel de Champlain established the French colony Quebec → but they died in large numbers due to disease / battles with natives → so mainly established presence in the form of trading posts

  • England

    • After Queen Elizabeth I rose to power and defeated Spain’s attempts to invade England, which weakened Spain significantly → she supported westward expansion

      • Elizabeth commissioned Sir Walter Raleigh to lead the expedition → established England’s first colony in the Americas (Virginia + Jamestown)

  • Dutch Republic

    • 1579: Gained independence from Spain & emerged as the wealthiest state in Europe

    • Began competing for trading posts around Africa and would eventually dethrone the Portuguese as the kings of the Indian Oc. trade

    • 1608: Dutch sponsored Henry Hudson to sail west to establish a Dutch presence in the New World which he did by founding the colony of New Amsterdam

UNIT 4.3: THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE

• Columbian Exchange: transfer of new diseases, food, plants, and animals between the Eastern and Western hemispheres

  • Cause: Columbus created contact between the New World and the Old World

• Effects: Disease

  • When Europeans arrived the in the Americas, they brought along disease vectors (rats & mosquitoes) with them and since they were never exposed before, this had disastrous consequences

    • Malaria: carried by mosquitoes, introduced to the Americas through enslaved Africans who were transported for plantation work; killed millions of indigenous Americans

    • Measles: highly contagious and spread rapidly in densely populated areas, killing millions

    • Smallpox: most devastating, spread through Mexico, Central America, and down to SA, killing 90% of some area’s population (Great Dying)

• Effects: Plants and Food

  • Europeans brought wheat, bananas, sugar, grapes, and olives → indigenous adopted some of these new foods (diversified their diets + increased their life span)

    • Americas transferred potatoes, maize, manioc (better diets/health → population grew)

  • On European control plantations in the Americas they grew Cash Crops → method of agriculture where food is grown for export

    • Found out that they would get a lot of by planting single crops on massive plantations that were worked by coerced laborers (no choice)

    • EX. The large scale operation growing sugarcane in Caribbean colonies, enslaved Africans mainly did the intensive/exhausting labor → sugar was exported to markets in Europe and the Middle East

  • Africa brought new food to the Americas including okra and rice

• Effects: Animals

  (Animals introduced to the Americas from Europe had the biggest effect)

  • Europeans brought pigs, sheep, cattle → created the foundation for future ranching economies

    • new animals brought environmental consequences that put strains on farmers (sheep ate grass → erosion)

  • HORSES: changed the society of indigenous peoples by allowing them to more effectively hunt large herds of Buffalo (staple food item for them)

UNIT 4.4: SEA BASED EMPIRES ESTABLISHED

• European Trade Ascendancy

  • Motives to Imperialism: Gold, God, Glory

    • To enrich themselves

    • To spread Christianity

    • Be the greatest state

  • Portuguese: established first trading post empire → Portuguese participated in Indian Oc. trade by owning/controlling it by force

  • Spanish (Spain): set up their operations in the Philippines + established colonies instead of trading posts (maintained through tribute systems, taxation, coerced labor)

  • Dutch: used same methods as Portuguese to establish control over the trade route + Dutch did the same thing what the British did (colonial rule) in Indonesia

  • British: Lacked military power to take over the Mughal Empire → established trading posts along their coasts

    • near the end of the 18th century, British transformed trading posts into colonial rule in India

• Continuity in trade: Asian merchants who had been using the trade network for centuries before the arrival of Europeans continued to use it → increased profits for Europeans and merchants

  • Merchants like the Gujaratis in the Mughal Empire continued to make use of the Indian Ocean Trade even while Europeans sought to dominate it, and in doing so they increased their power + wealth

• Asian Resistance

  • Tokugawa Japan: By the early 1600s, Japan (previously been weakened by internal fracturing) was united under a Shogun from the Tokugawa Clan (Tokugawa Ieyasu), at first he was open to trading with the Europeans but soon realized that they were a threat to the unification of Japan → Europeans wanted to convert people to Christianity and by the second half of the 16th century, lots of Japanese people had converted to Christianity and the Shogun believed that this would cause a renewed fracturing → expelled all Christian missionaries and suppressed the faith within Japan, often with violence

  • Ming China: Ming China: Many motives for the voyages of Zheng He, the most important was to create a situation where most of maritime trade in the Indian Oc. was processed through the Chinese state (didn’t work, isolationist trade policies)

    • Portuguese came to China (early 1500s) traded only with bribery → Ming officials expelled them (isolation grew)

• Expansion of African States

  • Asante Empire: key trading partner with the Portuguese and later the British by providing highly desired goods like gold, ivory, and enslaved laborers → made them rich and expanded/consolidated their military and power

    • Used their power to repel against the British from colonizing the region

  • Kingdom of the Kongo: Made strong diplomatic ties to Portuguese traders who desired for gold, ivory, and enslaved laborers → to keep this economic relationship, the King converted to Christianity (relationship deteriorated) BUT their connection enriched African states

• Economic and labor systems

  • colonial economies were structured around agriculture

  • Existing labor systems:

    • The Spanish made use of the old Inca mit’a system for their silver mining operations

  • New labor systems:

    • Chattel (property) Slavery: Laborers were owned like a piece of property (race-based + slavery became hereditary)

    • Indentured Servitude: Laborer would sign a contract that would bound them to a particular work for a period of time → poorer europeans used this to pay their passage to the colonies, after contract was done they can live their lives

    • Encomienda System: Spanish used this to get indigenous Americans to work for colonial authorities → indigenous people forced to provide labor for the Spanish in exchange for food/protection (similar to Feudalism)

    • Hacienda System: Haciendas were large agricultural estates owned by elite Spaniards → laborers forced to work the fields + crops exported/sold

      • DIFFERENCE: Encomienda focused on controlling the population → Hacienda focused on the economics of food

• Development of Slavery

  • Continuity:

    • African slave Trade → Cultural Assimilation

    • Domestic Work (African slaves became servants w/ a high demand for enslaved women)

    • Slaves held power (could hold military/political positions)

      • These continued during the rise and establishment of maritime empires

  • Change: mostly occurred in the Americas

    • Agricultural Work (male slaves purchased 2:1 → impacted demographics of African states)

    • Transatlantic trade larger than Mediterranean + Indian Ocean trade

    • Racial Prejudice (In the Americas, slavery became identified with blackness which justified the brutality of slavery)

      • Being black = less human, being less human = plantation owners could treat workers with violence and keep a clear conscience

UNIT 4.5: THE ECONOMICS OF EMPIRE BUILDING

• Economic Strategies

  • Mercantilism: A state driven economic system that emphasizes the buildup of mineral wealth by maintaining a favorable balance of trade (merchants wanted exports > imports)

    • Powerful motivation for empires → once a colony was established, it created a closed market to buy exports from the parent country (more colonies = more mineral wealth)

  • Joint Stock Companies: Limited liability business (often chartered by the state) that was funded by a group of investors

    • Liability = investors could only lose the money THEY invested

    • Chartered by the state: govt. approved this business + granted it trade monopolies in regions

    • Funded by a group = big innovation in how businesses were funded as they were privately funded, not state funded

  • In order for mercantilism to be a tool in Imperial expansion, the state and its merchants have to become tied together in a mutual interdependent way. The state used merchants to expand its influence in far off lands while merchants relied on the state to keep their interest & activity safe while granting them monopolies in various regions of trade → Joint Stock Companies became the main tool by which this mutual arrangement led to expanding empires

    • EX. Dutch East India company - chartered in 1602 by the Dutch state who subsequently granted the company a monopoly on trade in the Indian Oc.

      • company’s investors became rich

      • dutch imperial govt expanded its power/influence throughout the Indian Oc.

      note: Spain + Portugal were funding their trade and imperial ventures through the state → influence on the world was waning

• Change and Continuity

  • Change

    • Atlantic system: movement of goods between eastern & western hemispheres

    • Importance of sugar: colonial plantains specialized in the growth of sugarcane

    • Silver was king (EX. In Bolivia, the Spanish heavily exploited a large silver mine in Potosi and mines in other colonies → exported back to Spain and injected into the wider European economy and was used to purchase goods from Asia which had a twofold effect)

      • Effects of Silver: Satisfied Chinese demand for silver, furthering the commercialization of their economy

      • Increased Profits, the goods silver purchased in Asian markets like silk or porcelain were traded across the Atlantic system → more profits

  • Coerced Labor (systems)

    • Forced indigenous labor

    • Indentured servitude

    • Enslaved Africans

  • ALL established the global flow of silver + trade monopolies granted by state to Joint Stock Companies (Atlantic system turned European states into political/geographical equivalent of hogging that “pie”)

  • Continuity

    • Afro-Eurasian markets thrived: increased their reach and flourished (even though Europeans were increasingly dominating the Indian Oc. network, merchants continued to trade + benefited from the increased merchant traffic)

    • Asian Land Routes: overland routes like the Silk Roads were almost entirely controlled by Asian land-based powers (Ming China/Qing Dynasty)

    • Peasant and Artisan labor: intensified

      • Peasants were farmers but w/ the increase demand for goods → they produced more goods for distant markets

        • EX: demand for cotton increased throughout Europe → peasant farmers increased their production for export + increase their standard of living

      • Artisans were skilled laborers who made goods by hand → increased their production

• Social Effects (of the African slave trade)

  • Gender Imbalance: majority of slaves purchased were men

  • Changed family structures: african states were being depleted of their male population → increase in polygyny (practice of men marrying more than one women)

  • Cultural synthesis: Enslaved africans came from states/cultures → in the americas they adopted Creole (mixed) languages

    • Creole languages developed as a synthesis of European and African languages

• Changing Belief Systems

  • Spanish/Portuguese Christianity in South America: sent Catholic missionaries to their colonies to spread Christianity among indigenous people

    • European language and culture was introduced/imposed upon indigenous ppl + use of printing press had these ideas spread rapidly

      • (Outcome: some indigenous adopted Christianity, some practiced their own beliefs in secret→ violent retaliation from colonial authorities)

    • Las Casas’s Defense of Indigenous Americans: Protected indigenous americans from the abuse of colonial authorities → led to outlawing the enslavement of indigenous ppl + limiting the forms of coerced labor they could participate in

      • even though widespread conversion was their aim = slow progress → syncretic blending of Christianity + native belief systems

      • note: enslaved africans brought their native belief systems with them like islam and more blending happened

UNIT 4.6: CHALLENGES TO STATE POWER

• Local Resistance

  • Fronde (France)

    • CONTEXT: The French monarch Louis XIV was like a poster boy for absolutism (monarchs consolidated all power beneath themselves) → increased taxation → French nobility whose power had been under threat from the growing power of the monarchy led peasants in spontaneous rebellions, known as the Fronde - at the end the resistance was crushed and the monarchy only increased in power

  • Queen Ana Nzinga’s resistance (Africa): She ruled over the kingdoms of Vango and Matamba but was grew sus of Portuguese merchants so she allied with the Dutch and the kingdom of the Kongo to fight back the Portuguese armies which she successfully did

  • Pueblo Revolt (North America): Pueblo people had suffered terrible abuses as a result of oppressive Spanish missionary efforts → forced into coerced labor for Spanish projects and suffered the effects of disease and as a result the population dwindled → 1680, the Pueblo organized under a local leader named Po’pay and violently rebelled against the Spanish → temporarily able to eject the Spanish off their lands but later the Spanish returned in power and gained control of the region again

• SUMMARY: Due to the efforts of European states to expand their empires and consolidate power under themselves, the various groups that suffered the effects of that expansion resisted, sometimes successfully, sometimes unsuccessfully

• Resistance from the Enslaved

  • Maroon Societies (Caribbean & Brazil): Exceedingly harsh conditions of agricultural labor led to enslaved Africans running away and joining free blacks known as the Maroon society

    • Maroon communities served as an endless attraction for their workers to abandon the fields and flee

    • EX: In Jamaica, British colonial authorities tried to crush these communities, but the maroon fought back → colonial militia failed to wipe them out due to them living in mountains/thick forests

    • 1738: Treaty was signed that recognized the freedom of the maroons

  • British colonies (North America) aka Stono rebellion of 1739: South Car. was a major ag. operation that specialized in the export of rice and indigo → Britain sent enslaved africans there until the majority of people there were enslaved

    • 1739: 100 enslaved ppl stormed the local armory and traveled to kill their enslavers but local militia crushed this rebellion → event struck fear into slaveholding-colonies

  UNIT 4.7 CHANGING SOCIAL HIERARCHIES

• Responses to Ethnic Diversity (expulsion —> tolerance)

  • Jews in Spain & Portugal (expulsion): Spain issued a decree expelling ALL JEWS from their kingdom because they were afraid that the Jews who converted to Christianity would be tempted to renounce if any Jews remained to influence them → many Jews fled to Portugal but Portugal expelled Jews from their land too because of a new marriage alliance with the Spanish crown

    • CONTEXT: By 1492, Spain had completed the Reconquista (centuries long effort to rid the Iberian Peninsula of Muslim rule) → re established christianity as the official religion of the region

  • Jews in the Ottoman Empire (tolerant): Ottoman Empire heard about the Jewish expulsion and Ottoman Sultan Mehmed ll opened his empire to the displaced Jews who immigrated there → Some rose up to political power while others contributed to the economic and cultural environment

    • “relative” tolerance doesn’t mean Jews enjoyed full equality under ottoman rule → required to pay the Jizya (tax that non-muslims pay, only permitted to live in parts of urban areas)

  • Qing Dynasty (expulsion): Manchu rulers adopted parts of traditional Chinese culture (Confucian) → made a division between ethnic manchu and Han ppl

    • EX: Manchu retain the civil service exam to staff their bureaucracy BUT all high positions reserved for Manchus → Han ppl barred from those positions + Han men required to wear their hair in braided queues (humiliation for the ethnic Han)

  • Mughal Empire (tolerant): Under the leadership of Akbar the Great, profound tolerance was extended to ethnic and religious minorities → he refused to implement the Jizya and he constructed churches for Christians and temples for Hindus, etc..

• Rise of New Elites

  • Spanish Casta System in the Americas (organized by race/heredity)

  • Peninsulares: Born on the Iberian Peninsula, situated on top + Creoles: European descent / born in the New World

  • Castas (remaining members of society based on race):

    • Mestizos - European/indigenous

    • Mulattoes - European/African

    • Bottom - Indigenous and Africans

  • Prior to the Casta system, native peoples were part of a wide variety of cultural and linguistic groups but the Casta system erased this cultural complexity and ordered their society by the standards of a small minority of Spanish elite

• Struggles of Existing Elites

  • Russian Boyars: made up the aristocratic landowning class in Russia and they exerted great power in the administration of the empire for centuries

    • Peter the Great: Removed power from the boyars and consolidated it under himself → boyars protested → Peter abolished the rank of Boyar in Russia + required anyone who wanted employment in the Russian Bureaucracy to serve the state directly

  • Ottoman Timars: Timars were land grants made by the Ottoman state to an aristocratic class in payment for service to the govt. (usually military service)

    • Aristocrats who controlled the timars grew exceedingly rich and powerful through taxation of those ppl living on those parcels of land → by the 16th cent. Ottoman Sultans became increasingly taking over these Timars and converting them to Tax Farms which directed revenue directly to the state (elites found themselves weakened)

UNIT 5.1: THE ENLIGHTENMENT

• The Enlightenment: An intellectual movement that applied new ways of understanding, such as rationalism, and empiricist approaches to both the natural world and human relationships

  • Rationalism: Reason, rather than emotion or any external authority, is the most reliable source of true knowledge

  • Empiricism: The idea that true knowledge is gained through the senses, mainly though lots of experimentation

  • These ways of thinking developed during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th/17th centuries in Europe -> scientists tossed religious authority away and used reason to see how the world really worked 

  • They experienced scientific breakthroughs + understood the complexities of the Cosmos, the internal workings of the human body, etc. 

• The Enlightenment is an extension of the same scientific/rationalistic thinking BUT enlightenment philosophers applied those methods to the study of human society

  note: Crucial components to the Enlightenment: questioning and reexamination of the role of religion in public life -> Problem with Christianity from philosophers: it was a revealed religion (words by god couldn’t be questioned) 

  • Significant shift of authority: from the scientific revolution from outside a person to inside a person

    New Belief Systems:

  • Deism - Popular among Enlightenment thinkers → believed that a God created everything and then left everything until it runs out

  • Atheism - Rejection of religious belief

  New Enlightenment Ideas:

  1. Individualism: most basic element of society was the individual human and not collective groups

  2. Natural Rights: individual humans are born with certain rights that CANNOT be infringed upon by governments or any other entity

     • EX. John Locke argued that each human being was born with the natural rights of life, liberty, and property + those rights were endowed by God → cannot be taken away by a monarch

  3. Social Contract: idea that human societies endowed with natural rights must construct governments of their own will and the main purpose of that govt. is to protect their natural rights and if the govt. become tyrannical, the ppl have the right to overthrow the govt. and establish a new one

• Effects of the Enlightenment:

  • Major Revolutions began (American, French, Haitian, and Latin American rev.)

    • The Enlightenment’s emphasis on the rejection of established traditions and new ideas about how political power ought to work played a significant role in each of these great upheavals → increased nationalism

  • Suffrage expanded (the right to vote)

    • One reason for this would be that Enlightenment ideas like liberty and equality were revered in America as part of the cultural heritage beginning with the Declaration of Independence

  • Abolition of Slavery

    • Enlightenment thinkers criticized slavery -> Britain abolished slavery in 1807 (Britain was the wealthiest nation + gained wealth during the Industrial revolution by means of paid labor -> made economic sense) 

      • Enslaved people contributed with the Great Jamaica Revolt -> played a role in Britain’s decision to abolish slavery

  • End of Serfdom

    • In the midst of the transition from agricultural → industrial economies during the Industrial revolution, serfs became less needed -> peasant revolts persuaded state leaders to end serfdom

  • Calls for Women’s Suffrage

    • Feminist movements demanded equality of all life

    1. Olympe de Gouge created the Declaration of the rights of women and the female citizen -> criticized the French Constitution for sidlining women in the birth of post-revolutionary France

    2. Women in the US organized themselves at the Seneca Falls convention to call for a constitutional amendment that recognized women’s right to vote

UNIT 5.2: NATIONALISM & REVOLUTIONS

• Causes of Revolution

  • #1 Nationalism: states attempted to use nationalistic feelings to their advantage to foster a sense of unity among their people (nationalistic themes, public rituals, military service)

    • EX. Russian leaders required the russian language to be spoken to create a sense of unity

  • #2 Political Dissent: discontent with monarchist and imperial rule

    • EX. Safavid Empire tried to impose harsh new taxes and was met with rebellion from various militaristic nomadic groups on the edges of the empire, this resistance led to the weakening of the Safavid state → outside invaders put an end to the Safavids

    • EX. Wahhabi Movement sought to reform the corrupted form of Islam endemic in the Ottoman Empire → contributed to the long decline of the Ottomans

  • #3 New Ways of Thinking: the dev of new ideologies and systems of govt

    • Popular Sovereignty: power to govern was in the hands of the people

    • Democracy: people have the right to vote/influence the policies of the govt

    • Liberalism: emphasized the protection of civil rights, representative govt, the protection of private property, and economic freedom

• The Atlantic Revolutions

  • American Revolution (1776)

    • The British had established 13 colonies in North America on the Atlantic coast and because Britain was so far removed from these colonies by the ocean, those colonies independently dev a culture, system of government, and economic framework without interference from Britain → After the 7 Years War, Britain had war debt and got the colonies to pay it off by heavily taxing them

      • With new taxes, curtailment of freedoms, and adoption of enlightenment principles (shown in the Declaration of Independence) this Revolution began.

    • France helped the Americans and they won the war birthing the US in 1783 (victory provided a template for other nations for a successful overthrow of oppressive power)

  • French Revolution (1789)

    • French soldiers came back home after the American Revolution and many had ideals of democracy and were sus of their king → Louis the 16th attempted to tighten his control over France to pay his war debts → the ppl of France rebelled, overthrew the govt and established a Republic

      • Developed the Declaration of the rights of man and citizen

  • Haitian Revolution (1791)

    • Haiti was the colonial property of France and was the most prosperous colony in the world → island’s majority enslaved black ppl heard about French revolutionaries calling for liberty & equality, they wanted that as well

      • Under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture, the enslaved Haitians revolted and eventually defeated the French establishing the 2nd Republic in the Western Hemisphere after the US + first black govt in this region

  • Latin American Revolutions

    • Spanish and Portuguese colonies throughout Central and South America were also beginning to resent the increasing control their imperial parents were exerting on them

      • Resentment was particularly present in the Creole class which was made up of those with European heritage but born in the US → Creoles weren’t too happy about Peninsulares getting getting most of the power → 1808 Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and deposition of the Portuguese monarch created an unstable political situation in the American colonies which created the occasion for the revolution in Latin America

      • Simon Bolivar was a Creole military leader who appealed to Colonial subjects across racial lines w Enlightenment ideals (summarized in his letter from Jamaica) → through a series of long wars, each Latin American colony got its independence and some formed Republics

  • Other Nationalist Movements

    #1 Propaganda Movement (Philippines): Spanish colony → spanish controlled education + wealthy creoles/mestizos got high education.

    • Europe brought enlightenment ideas and Filipino students brought them home (didn’t want to start a rev)→ spanish authorities knew where that thinking could lead → spanish wanted to suppress

      • Philippine Revolution broke out

  • Unification of Italy & Germany (were made up of fragmented states)

    • military leaders inspired their people to unify together under a single govt (diplomacy + military tactics = unified these regions)

UNIT 5.3: HOW THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION BEGAN

Definition: Process where states transitioned from agrarian economies to industrial economies (goods made by hand → goods made by machine)

note: this changed the world’s balance of political power, reordered societies, and made industrial nations rich

• Why Britain came First

  • #1 Proximity to waterways: had access to river/canals → enabled efficient and rapid transportation of goods to markets

  • #2 Distribution of coal and iron: Development of coal power increased efficiency in the production of iron (built bridges, machines, railroads → rapid industrialization)

  • #3 Access to Foreign Resources: Due to their establishment of maritime empires, they had access to raw materials that weren’t available in Britain

  • #4 Improved Agricultural Productivity: had plenty of food → experienced an agricultural revolution

    • Crop Rotation: fertility of the soil maintained

    • Seed Drill: seeds could be planted more efficiently → less waste + greater harvests

    • Columbian Exchange: introduced potatoes → better diets/health (increased life span spiked population)

  • #5 Rapid Urbanization: rural to urban migration

    • with new tech, ppl didn’t need to work in the fields → industrial cities grew + provided ppl jobs

  • #6 Legal Protection of Private Property

    • Britain passed laws that protected entrepreneurs → entrepreneurs felt safe to risk investment to start new businesses (contributed to rapid industrialization)

  • #7 Accumulation of Capital

    • Amount of wealth gained through the atlantic slave trade, Britain had many ppl who had extra capital (Capitalists) → with extra money they invested in the industrial businesses

• Factory System

  • Concentrated production in a single location + powered by moving water due to the Water Frame

    • In textile factories this was connected to the Spinning Jenny (operated looms that created textiles quickly)

  • Since these machines didn’t require skill, specialization of labor occurred → with machines making goods, workers were easily replaceable since their jobs didn’t require much skill

UNIT 5.4: THE SPREAD OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

• The effect of steam power

  • Steam Engine: machine that converted fossil fuel into mechanical energy → meant that factories can be created anywhere + industrial revolution increased rapidly

  • Steamships: could transport goods faster/further

• Shifting world economics

  • Places who had many or all of Britain’s factors spread quickly + places who had few or none spread slowly

    • EX. Places in Eastern and Southern Europe lacked abundant coal deposits and were landlocked without easy access to waterways and were also hindered by historically powerful groups

    • The world in the 18th-19th century was being divided into industrialized nations (Britain, France, US → claimed a growing portion of the world’s global manufacturing output)

  • AND non-industrialized nations (countries in the Middle East + Asia who were previous powerhouses of the world saw their share of production for the world decline)

    • EX. India and Egypt had been been renowned for the quality of their textile production, but with the rise of mass produced textiles in Britain which were far cheaper, Indian and Egyptian markets shared decline

• Industrialized Nations Compared

  • France: Adopted industrial technologies after Napoleon left + had a WAY SLOWER industrialization pace that Britain because France lacked the abundant coal and iron deposits

    • (Napoleon laid the foundations for French industrialization by building the Quenton Canal: major waterway connecting with the iron/coal fields in the North)

    • Soon the govt sponsored the construction of railroads and by the 1830s, textile factories were built which created a significant cotton industry for France and revived their slumping silk industry too

  • United States: Once they dealt with their Civil war, the US industrialized very quickly and became a major player on the global economic stage because it had many of the same features as Britain like its large size, political stability after the war, and its large population which provided a market for mass produced goods → US economy grew which led to a higher standard of living for its workers and counterparts in Europe

  • Russia: Russia still remained under the dictatorial thumb of an absolutist tsar, but this tsar realized that if Russia did not industrialize, Russia would be left behind, so he adopted many industrial technologies like railroads and steam engines but also:

    • Trans-Siberian Railroad (Moscow-Pacific Oc.): Increased trade with eastern states (china) + created an interdependent market throughout Russia

      • The top-down approach yielded brutal conditions for workers → many uprisings → Russian Revolution of 1905

  • Russia’s industrialization was a state driven affair in response to Russia’s lagging dev compared to Western Europe

  • Japan: Many Asian states were declining in power as Western industrial states gained power - getting knocked around and forced into unequal treaties so Japan began defensive industrialization during a period known as the Meiji Restoration, borrowed HEAVILY from Western tech, education, etc.. and quickly became an Industrial power in the East

UNIT 5.5: TECHNOLOGY OF THE INDUSTRIAL AGE

• Fuels and Engines

  • Coal (1st revolution):

    • Main engine of the first industrial revolution was the steam engine (developed by James Watt)

    • Effect of steam engine: machines didn’t have to be powered by water anymore + factories can be built anywhere → rapid spread of factory systems

      • Powered Locomotives (transported goods to markets quick) + Steamships (increased speed) → developed coaling stations for ships to refuel

      • The Suez canal shortened the distance from Europe → Asia which led to the multiplication of steam ships and increase in trade

  • Oil (2nd revolution):

    • The internal combustion engine was developed to harness the energy of gasoline → eventually power the automobile

• 2nd Industrial Revolution Technology

  • Steel: main building material for industrialization compared to iron in the 1st rev. bessemer process combined iron + carbon and blasted hot air into it making it stronger and more versatile than iron alone

    • Became cheaper to produce and eventually the #1 building material for bridges, railroads, ships, etc…

  • Chemical Engineering: synthetic dyes were dev for textiles (cheaper than org dyes used in 1st rev) + vulcanization made RUBBER more durable

    • Rubber: used in factories as belts for machines + later used as tires for automobiles

  • Electricity: most significant impact on industrialized nations

    • electric subways/streetcars developed and provided transit in major cities

  • Telegraph (Samuel Morse): could send communication across wires to distant places with the use of short and long electrical signals (morse code) → 1870s: telegraph wire connected Britain + USA → developed the economies

• Effects of New Technologies

  • Development of interior regions: with the expansion of railroads/development of the telegraph → new settlements were developed in places that were more difficult to reach

  • Increase in trade and migration: the amount of global trade multiplied x10 and as a result, states across the globe are becoming more connected into a global economy + migration increased through railroads and steamboats (as Europe gained more tech, more ppl traveled from rural → urban areas in search for jobs)

UNIT 5.6: GOVERNMENT SPONSORED INDUSTRIALIZATION

• Egyptian (Ottoman) Industrialization

  • CONTEXT: for states that adopted industrialization, the transformation of their economies and their share of the global palace was fundamentally shifted in their favor → since some states didn’t want to be crushed, they promoted their own state sponsored + more limited attempts at industrialization

  • Ottoman Empire was declining due to internal corruption + conflicts and therefore had little energy or wealth to invest in industrialization

  • Under the leadership of Muhammad Ali, Egypt took steps → industrialization

    • Tanzimat Reforms

      • Industrial projects (textile/weapons factories built)

      • Agriculture (govt purchased crops to be sold on world market)

      • Tariffs (taxes on imported goods + protected development of Egyptian economy)

  • HOWEVER, this was not as successful as it was in the West because Great Britain wasn’t very happy to witness the growing power and wealth of industrialized Egypt bc crossing Egypt was the quickest way to access trade routes in Asia

  • SO when Egypt vs Ottomans war happened, Britain intervened and forced Egypt to remove tariffs/barriers to trade → British goods flooded Egypt and Egypt couldn’t continue their industrial project

• Japan Industrialization

  • CONTEXT: Japan, during the Tokugawa Shogunate had almost completely isolated itself from Western influence in trade, leaving only a single port open to Dutch traders

  Factors that influenced Japan’s industrialization:

  • Western powers: dominated other Asian states like China; overwhelmed China w their industrialized military might and forced them into a series of unequal treaties that made China subservient to Western economic interests

  • Matthew Perry: U.S. commodore Matthew Perry → Japan with a fleet of steam powered ships stacked w guns and demanded that Japan open trade w U.S.

    • Japan initiated an aggressive state sponsored program of industrialization as a defensive measure against western domination facilitated by a Japanese civil war in 1868 → overthrew the shogunate + reestablishes of an emperor by Samurai who feared western intrusion → continued Japanese Isolationism → MEIJI RESTORATION

  • Meiji Restoration

    • Culture: Japan sent emissaries to major industrial powers to learn abt their tech, culture, education systems, and political arrangements then implemented it into their OWN state

    • Government: Established a constitution that provided for an elected parliament (borrowed from Germany)

    • Infrastructure: State funded building of railroads, national banking system + development of industrial factories (textiles/munitions)

UNIT 5.7: THE ECONOMICS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

• Slow death of Mercantilism

  • Replaced by free market economics that was market driven

    Influence on this transition: The Wealth of Nations (Adam Smith) - criticized mercantilism, said it benefitted elite members of society. He argued with more Laissez-Faire policies (get the govt out of the economy, let ppl make their own economic decisions) + argued that if free market was applied then wealth would be more evenly distributed

    • Suppliers + Consumers would react to each other based on the laws of supply and demand (“The Invisible Hand”)

UNIT 5.7: THE ECONOMICS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION