AP gov unit 4

Senate

Upper house of Congress with 100 members (2 per state), 6-year terms; more prestigious, advises/consents on treaties and appointments

House of Representatives

Lower house of Congress with 435 members based on state population, 2-year terms; initiates revenue bills, more formal rules

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

1787 agreement creating bicameral legislature: Senate has equal representation, House has proportional representation

Article I

Constitutional article establishing the legislative branch, its structure, powers, and limitations

Incumbency

Current officeholder seeking re-election; advantages include name recognition, fundraising ability, and constituent services (90%+ win rate)

Name Recognition

Voter familiarity with a candidate's name; major incumbency advantage that helps in elections

Constituents

Residents of a district or state represented by an elected official

Pork/Earmarks

Funding for specific projects in a member's district inserted into bills; helps members claim credit and get re-elected

Casework

Personal assistance members provide to constituents with federal agencies (Social Security, veterans benefits, etc.); builds loyalty

Franking

Privilege allowing members to mail newsletters and correspondence to constituents for free; incumbency advantage

Safe Seat

Electoral district where one party dominates and the incumbent is almost guaranteed re-election

Open Seat

Election with no incumbent running; more competitive and uncertain outcome

Census

Official population count every 10 years required by Constitution; determines House seat distribution

Redistricting

Redrawing congressional district boundaries within states, usually after census

Apportionment/Reapportionment

Distribution of House seats among states based on population; states can gain or lose seats after census

Gerrymandering

Drawing district lines to favor one party; creates unfair electoral advantages despite being legal in most cases

Packing

Gerrymandering strategy: concentrating opposition voters into few districts to waste their votes

Cracking

Gerrymandering strategy: spreading opposition voters across many districts to dilute their voting power

Standing Committee

Permanent specialized committees (Agriculture, Armed Services, etc.) that handle specific policy areas

Subcommittee

Smaller units within standing committees focusing on specific aspects of the committee's jurisdiction

Committee Chairs

Leaders of committees who control agendas, hearings, and which bills get considered; very powerful positions

Seniority

System where longest-serving members get committee leadership positions and choice assignments

Congressional Agencies (CBO, CRS)

Support agencies: Congressional Budget Office (economic analysis), Congressional Research Service (policy research)

Jurisdiction Specialization

Committees develop expertise in their policy areas, making them gatekeepers for related legislation

Rules Committee

House committee that sets terms for debate and amendments; controls which bills reach the floor and how they're debated

Appropriations Committee

Committee controlling government spending; divides budget among federal agencies and programs

Judiciary Committee

Committee handling court system, constitutional amendments, criminal law; vets federal judge nominations

Ways and Means Committee

House committee with jurisdiction over taxes, tariffs, Social Security, and Medicare

Foreign Relations Committee

Senate committee overseeing foreign policy, treaties, and diplomatic nominations

Committee Staff

Experts hired by committees to research issues, draft legislation, and organize hearings

Oversight Committee

Committees monitoring executive branch agencies to ensure proper implementation of laws

Confirmation Committee (Senate)

Senate committees that hold hearings and vote on presidential appointments (judges, cabinet members)

Conference Committee

Temporary joint committee reconciling different House and Senate versions of the same bill

Bill/Law

Bill = proposed legislation; becomes law only after passing both chambers and presidential signature (or veto override)

Cloture

Senate procedure requiring 60 votes to end debate and stop a filibuster

Filibuster

Senate tactic where unlimited debate delays or blocks a vote on a bill; unique to Senate

Holds

Informal Senate practice where a senator can delay or block action on a bill or nomination

Blue Slips

Senators' approval of judicial nominees from their home state; tradition giving senators veto power

Senatorial Courtesy

Custom where Senate defers to home-state senators on appointments and nominations in their state

Amendment/Rider

Changes or additions to a bill; riders are unrelated provisions attached to legislation

Poison Pill

Amendment designed to make a bill unacceptable to its supporters, killing it

Veto (and Pocket Veto)

Presidential rejection of a bill; pocket veto occurs when president doesn't sign within 10 days and Congress adjourns

Override

Congress passes a bill over presidential veto with 2/3 vote in both chambers; rarely successful

Log Rolling

Members trading votes: 'I'll support your bill if you support mine'; helps pass legislation

Term Limits

Restrictions on number of terms served; exists for president (2 terms) but not Congress

Sunset Law

Legislation that automatically expires unless renewed; forces periodic review of programs

Legislative Veto

Congressional power to reject executive actions; largely struck down by Supreme Court in INS v.

Midterm Elections

Congressional elections held halfway through presidential term; typically favor party opposing president

27th Amendment

Congressional pay raises can't take effect until after the next election; prevents self-serving raises

House Speaker

Most powerful House member; presides over chamber, controls floor debate, assigns bills to committees

House Majority Leader

Second-ranking House member who schedules legislation and coordinates party strategy

Senate 'Advise and Consent'

Constitutional power requiring Senate approval of treaties (2/3) and presidential appointments (majority)

Federalist 51

Madison's essay arguing for separation of powers and checks and balances: 'Ambition must counteract ambition'

House Minority Leader

Leader of opposition party in House; organizes opposition and shadows majority leader's role

Whips

Party leaders who count votes, pressure members to vote party line, and communicate between leadership and members

Senate Majority + Minority Leaders

Top party leaders in Senate; majority leader controls floor schedule, minority leader coordinates opposition

Senate Pro-Temp

Ceremonial position; senior member of majority party presides over Senate when VP absent

Delegate Model

Representative votes according to constituents' wishes, regardless of personal views

Trustee Model

Representative votes based on own judgment of what's best, even if constituents disagree

Politico Model

Representative balances delegate and trustee approaches depending on the issue

Imperial Presidency

Expansion of presidential power beyond constitutional limits; concerns about unchecked executive authority

Whig/Stewardship Theory

Two views: Whig (limited powers) vs. Stewardship (president can do anything not forbidden); Teddy Roosevelt championed stewardship

Bully Pulpit

President's platform to promote agenda and influence public opinion through speeches and media attention

Divided Government

Different parties control presidency and at least one chamber of Congress; leads to gridlock

Presidential Illusion

Public overestimates president's power to solve problems; president often constrained by Congress and courts

Federalist 70

Hamilton's essay arguing for single, energetic executive with power to act decisively

Pyramid Approach

Organizational style with strict hierarchy; info filtered through chief of staff (Nixon, Eisenhower used this)

Hub-of-Wheel Approach

President at center with direct access to multiple advisors; FDR and JFK preferred this decentralized style

West Wing (Executive Office of the President)

White House staff and agencies directly supporting president (OMB, NSC, etc.); created 1939

Chief of Staff

Top presidential aide managing White House operations, controlling access to president, coordinating staff

Press Secretary

Official spokesperson who communicates president's message to media and holds daily briefings

Primary Elections

State elections where party members choose their nominee for president; replaced party bosses selecting candidates

National Convention

Party gathering to officially nominate presidential candidate and adopt platform; largely ceremonial today

Vice-Presidency

Constitutionally weak office; breaks Senate ties, succeeds president; role varies by president

Electoral College

System where 538 electors actually elect president; winner needs 270; criticized as undemocratic

Unit Rule/Winner-Take-All

Most states award all electoral votes to plurality winner (except Maine and Nebraska)

Swing State

Competitive states with uncertain outcomes (Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Arizona); receive disproportionate campaign attention

Inauguration

Ceremony on January 20 where president takes oath of office and delivers inaugural address

Balancing the Ticket

Choosing VP to appeal to different demographic, region, or faction; broadens electoral appeal

Approval Ratings

Public opinion polls measuring presidential popularity; affects political capital and ability to pass agenda

Sawyer (1952)

Supreme Court ruled Truman couldn't seize steel mills without congressional authorization; limited executive power

Honeymoon Period

First 100 days when president enjoys high approval and Congress more cooperative; best time to pass agenda

Line-Item Veto

Power to veto specific parts of bills; presidents lack this (ruled unconstitutional 1998)

Signing Statements

Written comments when signing bills explaining how president will interpret/enforce law; controversial expansion of power

Power of Persuasion

President's ability to convince Congress, public, and other actors through negotiation and public appeals

War Powers Act

1973 law requiring president to notify Congress within 48 hours of military action and get authorization within 60-90 days

Budget and Impoundment Act

1974 law preventing president from refusing to spend congressionally appropriated funds; created CBO

22nd Amendment

Limits president to two terms (or 10 years total); passed after FDR's four terms

Formal Powers

Constitutional powers explicitly granted to president (veto, commander-in-chief, appointments, treaties)

Informal Powers

Powers developed through tradition and practice (executive orders, executive agreements, bargaining)

Chief Executive

President's role as head of executive branch, enforcing laws and managing federal bureaucracy

Executive Order

Presidential directive with force of law; doesn't need congressional approval but can be challenged in court

Executive Agreement

International agreement made by president without Senate ratification; easier than treaties but less permanent

State of the Union Address

Annual speech to Congress outlining president's legislative agenda and national priorities

Unitary Executive

Theory that president has complete control over executive branch; controversial interpretation expanding presidential power

Commander-in-Chief

President's constitutional role as head of armed forces; directs military operations

Head of State

President's ceremonial role representing nation (greeting foreign leaders, awarding medals)

Chief Diplomat

President's role conducting foreign policy, negotiating treaties, recognizing foreign governments

Party Leader

President as leader of their political party; helps elect members, shapes party platform

Office of Management & Budget (OMB)

Prepares president's budget proposal and oversees federal spending; powerful tool for policy priorities