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Group
2 or more ppl that interact and are interdependent as their needs and goals cause them to influence each other
why do we join groups
seen from evolution, gathering food was better in groups
define who we are, strong need to belong to social group, feel distinctive from those that dont belong
factors that effect how ppl behave in groups and how groups function
social norms-which behaviors are acceptable, how all members should act
social roles-shared expectations in a group about behavior, how ppl in certain poisons should act. being too dedicated can lead to unethical behavior. how we construe the roles can lead to ethical or unethical
group cohesiveness-qualities of a group that bind members together and create liking between them (hanging with a group that u are close to rather than strangers) this usually is beneficial to performance, but if keeping a good relationship w/a member is more important than solving an issue, it can ruin performance
group diversity: members of a group tend to be alike. we may enjoy a group with similar others but we perform best with diversity
how a group effects individual performance
social facilitation: performing a simple task that is well learned better when others are watching, but perform worse on complex tasks—why does this happen?
arousal and the dominant response: the precense of others increases physiological arousal, which makes something we are good at easier to perform, but harder to do something complex.
why does the presence of other cause arousal
other ppl cause us to become alert (they will do something that requires our response), nervous abt how we are being evaluated (evaluation apprehension-not just ppl there but ppl there judging us=social facilitation), distracting us from the task (other distractions like noises, lights, etc, causes same kinds of social facilitation effects as other peeps)
social loafing
relaxing in the precense of others. when performance is not evaluated, the tendency to do worse on simple tasks but better at complex tasks
stronger in men than women and stronger in western culture, we are more likely to loaf in a diverse group because we bond with similar others but expect to cooperate less with different ppl
deindividuation
being in a group can cause this. loosing of normal constraints on behavior when ppl can’t be identified
aka-getting lost in a crowd can lead us can cause us to do things we would never dream of doing ourselves—the bigger the group and the more hidden ur identity, the more likely to do horrendous acts
effects of deindividuation
makes us feel less accountable: reduced likelihood that they will be singled out and blamed. we must speak to each person individually and put personal responsibility to dissemble the group.
increases obedience to group norms: more likely to act according to group rather than societal norms when deindividuated. can lead to pos or neg behavior
deindividuation also works even best online because its anonymous, to stop from bad comments, its best to tell a child their parent will read it, not that the comments will hurt someone else, this is because of influential norms
2 heads better than one
we usually have biases but being in a group helps us to make better decisions, but this is not always the case
when do group interactions inhibit good problem solving (process loss)
process loss: any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving
failure to share unique info: more like to talk about info they collectively share rather than things known to only some members
groupthink: is a decision process where maintaining group cohesiveness is more important than the facts
Self censorship: ppl decide to not voice their contrary opinions
transactive memory
combined memory of a group is more efficient than memory of the individual members
making groupthink less likely
remain impartial, seek outside opinions, create subgroups, seek anaoymous opinions
group polarization and why does it happen
groups tend to make decisions that are more extreme in the same direction as the initial predispositions of its members (we're usually unaware of this polarization)
happens:
persuasive arguments
social comparison: check to see if the rest of the group feels abt something
what makes someone a great leader, there is a theory
great person theory: certain key personality like (charisma, confidence, or intelligence) traits make a person a good leader regardless of the situation
leadership may not have specific personalities but they have specific kinds of leadership
2 types of leaders
transactional leaders: leaders set clear, short term goals and reward those that meet them
transformational leaders: leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals
leadership needs to focus on characteristics, followers, and situation. this si the contingency theory of leadership.
leadship effectivness depends on how task or relationship oriented the leader is and the amount of control the leader has over the group
2 orientations for leaders
task-oriented: concerned with getting the job done that with workers feelings and relationships (high and low control situations)
relationship-oriented: concerted more with workers feelings and relationships (moderate control situations)
gender and leadership
its getting better for women to become leaders but still not there yet. why? good traits of leaders are seen as being controlling and dominate. women are also seen at better solving relational issues so they are put in situation with crisis where it is more likely to fail. men are usually put into situations where its already running smoothy.
groups are now becoming more diverse because we value diff traits
a reason we have conflict alot is because usually whats best for us may not be best for the entire group. the Panera experiment where ppl payed what they only could afford led to a social dilemma…
a conflict where if the most beneficial action for an individual is chosen by most ppl, it has harmful effects for everyone
the prisoners dilemma, what is it and how can we increase cooperation with it
The Prisoner's Dilemma is a game where two people must choose to work together or betray each other. If both work together, they get a good outcome. If one betrays while the other stays loyal, the betrayer wins big, and the other loses. If both betray, they both lose. It shows how selfish choices can lead to worse results.
playing the game with a partner u believe u will interact with in the future
changing the name of the game
priming like showing Chinese symbols lead to more cooperation while showing American flag lead to more competitiveness
another way to encourage cooperation is tit-for-tat strategy
encourages cooperation by first acting cooperatively but then always responding how ur opponent did on the previous trial (whether competitively or cooperatively)
makes more likely other person will cooperate because it shows ur willing to but u wont be exploited
lastly, allowing__instead of opposing groups to resolve conflict, why
individuals
because groups are known to lead to deindividuation. polarization, etc, so one person allows for a better communication and negotiation
do threats resolve conflict?
alot of teachers or parents use threats like detention but it is not an effective means of reducing conflict
negotiation
form of communication where opposing sides in a conflict offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs when both parties agree
integrative solution
solution to a conflict where the parties make trade-offs on issues that don’t matter much to them but are important to the other side.
its found that old style communication like face to face and having a mediatior is better for solving conflict
chapter 10-attraction and relationships
fun fact: opposites dont attract, its usually people with similarity
propinquity effect
the more we see and interact with ppl the more likely we are to be their friend—not just physical distance but also functional distance like how a building was designed indicating whether u will cross paths or not, this works because of the mere exposure effect
mere exposure effect
the more we are exposed to a stimulus the more likely we will like it, makes sense that close friends made in college because of the prop effect
we are more likely to be friends with those that have same opinions or personality or beliefs and also, same experiences. meaning, if u sign up to take yoga, those other ppl also signed up for that—putting ourselves in social situations for similar reasons that others have. what is actual vs perceived similarity/
how much similarity there actually is vs what beliefs we create about how similar we are to(this is important in committed relationships rather than flings)
appearance
we are more likely to become friends with, sit closer to, sit next to, and ask out people that look like us/similar in attractiveness, also more likely to match ourselves to ppl with similar popularity status
how genetics are affected
our DNA with our close friends end up being so similar its like we have eh same great great great grandparent. this happens because our predispositions to things like athletic build makes us more likely to choose similar activities
reciprocal liking
liking can make up for the absence of similarity, even knowing someone likes you increases ur liking towards them. knowing someone is interested in us disrupts our natural tendency to look at other attractive ppl. its Juan.
Playing hard to get can backfire because we like to know we are liked. it may increase how much a person wants you but not how much they like you.
physical attraction overrides other aspects, by both gender but more so male
what is attractive
the media tells us, but also what we find attractive is actually similar across cultures, we like symmetry suggested by evolution because indicates healthy and fit
composite faces are often found more attractive rather than the faces used to create them
higher attractive can be not nice—babies that are seen as more attractive are more taken care of in the hospital, people are higher paid, and students receive better evaluations, also better relationships because better soical skills because got more attention when younger
halo effect
cog bias—we assume that when an individual has one pos characteristic (like attractive) they also possess other pos characteristics (even unrelated)
even across cultures
it is seen in evolutionary psych that women more carefully choose a mate because they find success in the maturity of their offspring (aka seeking men with economic and career success) whereas males find success in the number, so they will seek more mates to increase that amount (looking for a woman who appears capable aka attractive), but when women were tested to be the approachers (aka they went up to the man) they had same traits that men did because being approached instead makes u feel more in demand and control, so its not just nature but nurture
how technology effects social connection
even the mere precense of a phone that isn t yours causes feelings of being disconnected and lower ratings of empathy and connectedness
pitfalls of online dating
does not actually succeed in compatibly
profiles not accurate
who’s fake: fakers are less likely to use I or me, s;so write things negatively, less words
3 types of love
companionate —feelings of intimacy and affection for someone w/o passion and physicological arousal
passionate- intense longing for a person w/physiological arousal
romantic—combining both companionate and passionate
Robert Sternberg
triangular theory of love, intimacy: feeling close and connected, passion: physical attraction and sex, commitment
attachment styles is defined as
expectations that ppl have abt relationships based on the realtionships they had with primary caregivers
3 types of attachment styles and want they mean—draws on research from John Bowlby
secure —trust, not concerned with abandonment, feeling worthy and well liked, baby cry when mom leave but better when mom back
avoidant —difficulty developing intimate relationships due to previous attempts being rejected, baby dont react when mom leave and suppress desire to be close to parent
anxious/ambivalent—concerned that others will not reciprocate one’s desire for intimacy, resulting in high levels of anxiety, cry when mom leave and keep crying when mom come back
creates schemas for what all our relationships will be like
alot of times we think we are in love but really its just__
physiological arousal
falling in love activates the same part of the brain that cocaine and eating chocolate , gambling do, so love really does feel like a drug. which part of brain is this?
VTA ventral tegmental area—dopamine rich, determined by fMRI
social exchange theory
ppls feelings abt a relationship depend on their perceptions of its costs and rewards, the kind of relationship they deserve, and their chances of having a better relationship with others
how satisfied u r with ur relationship also depends on comparison level
ppls expectations abt the level of costs and reward they are likely to receive in their relationship
low comparison ur happy in a real because u expect it to be difficulty and costly, high comparison ur unhappy in same relationship because u expect ti to have few costs. this is from our history of relationships with others
it also depends on comparison level for alternatives
ppls expectations abt the level of costs and rewards they would receive in alternative relationships
high comparison, more likely to leave, low comparison, more likely to stay
alot of ppl stay even when they know there are better alternatives. why and what does it mean?
because of the investment model
ppls commitment to relationship depends on their satisfaction AND how much they have invested in the relationship that would be lost by ending t
social theory has been critiqued for ignoring fairness in a relationship which is the equity theory, which is what? these are called exchange relationships
ppl are most happy with relationships where the costs and rewards are equal for both parties
Close family relationships are usually communal relationships
relationships where the primary concern for each person is being responsive to the other persons needs
one of best predictors of a breakup
investment and satisfaction plays a big role in detereming whether ur friends or not after, other reproach shows that staying in contact with an ex or even scrolling their social media can be distressing and make the breakup more challenging
how they deal with conflict and show signs of contempt, sarcasm, criticism
4 stages to dissolving a relationship
intrapersonal, thinks about dissatisfaction within relationship
dyadic, break up
social, tells others
moving on
4 types of behavior that occur in troubled relationships (destructive and constructive) the destructive ones harm the relationship more than the constructive help it. if one person acts D but the other person acts C the relationship will continue, but if both act D it will end ALSO partners who overbenefit in a relationship and partners who underbenefit are likely to feel dissatisfied with their relationships
harming the relationship (abuse, threats to leave) and allowing relationship to deteriorate (dont deal with problems, ignoring partner)
trying to improve relationship (discuss problems, make change) and remaining loyal to the relationship (supportive, optimism, waiting for it to improve)
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