Topic 1: Biological Molecules

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60 Terms

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polymer
molecule made from larger number of monomers joined together
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monomer
smaller units from which larger molecules are made
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condensation
reaction that joins two molecules together with the formation of a chemical bond and involves the elimination of water molecule
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hydrolysis
reaction breaks a chemical bond between two molecules and involves the use of a water molecule
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monomer of carbohydrates
monosaccharide
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2 monomers of carbohydrates
disaccharide
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more than 2 monomers of carbohydrates
polysaccharide
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bond between two monosaccharides
glycosidic bond
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maltose
alpha glucose + alpha glucose

reducing sugar, disaccharide
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sucrose
alpha glucose + fructose

non-reducing sugar, disaccharide
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lactose
beta glucose + galactose

reducing sugar, disaccharide
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starch
polysaccharide used for storage in **plants**, made from alpha glucose molecules

helical so compact, fit lots of energy in small area

insoluble so osmotically inactive

larger molecule so cannot cross cell-surface membrane

branched so can be hydrolysed quickly from multiple ends
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glycogen
polysaccharide used for storage in **animal and bacteria**, made from alpha glucose molecules

helical so compact, fit lots of energy in small area

insoluble so osmotically inactive

larger molecule so cannot cross cell-surface membrane

highly branched so can be hydrolysed quickly from multiple ends
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cellulose
polysaccharide used in the structure of cell walls in plants

long, straight, and unbranched chains of beta glucose that are rotated by 180° alternatively

joined by lots of hydrogen bonding

to provide rigidity and form (micro)fibrils
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test for **reducing** sugars
add Benedict’s solution and boil

positive = blue turns to brick-red precipitate
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test for **non-reducing** sugars

1. add Benedict’s solution and boil
2. negative result, stays blue
3. add acid and boil, to hydrolyse poly/disaccharides into monosaccharides
4. add alkali, to neutralise solution
5. add Benedict’s solution and boil
6. positive result, blue turns brick-red
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test for starch
add iodine

positive result = brown to blue-black
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triglyceride
1 glycerol molecule bonded to 3 fatty acid molecules

hydrophobic

found in fats and oils
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phospholipid
1 glycerol molecule bonded to 2 fatty acid molecules and 1 phosphate group

hydrophobic tail

hydrophilic head
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structure of fatty acids
R-COOH

R = hydrocarbon chain

COOH = carboxyl group
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bond between glycerol and fatty acids
ester bond
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difference between saturated and unsaturated
saturated = R-group/fatty acid chain which there is no C=C bonds

unsaturated = contains at least one C=C bond in the R-group
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test for lipids
emulsion test

ethanol then water and shake

positive = cloudy-white emulsion
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monomer of proteins
amino acid
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2 monomers of proteins
dipeptide
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more than 2 monomers of proteins
polypeptide
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bond between two amino acids
peptide bond

between carboxyl and amine groups
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how many amino acids are there
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primary structure
series of condensation reactions leads to a sequence of amino acids/polypeptide chain

determines shape and function of protein
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secondary structure
many hydrogen bonds form between amine and carboxyl groups

either alpha helix or beta pleated sheets
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tertiary structure
secondary structure is twisted to for 3D complex shape

hydrogen, disulphide, and ionic bonds form between R-groups of amino acids
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quaternary structure
more than one polypeptide chain

and non-protein groups like carbon
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test for proteins
add Biuret solution

positive = blue to purple
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how enzymes work
enzymes have an active site which is complementary to substrate

they bind to each other forming an enzyme-substrate complex

lowering the activation energy of the reaction, by distorting/bending the bonds of the substrate

products no longer fit the active site so it is released

enzyme remains unchanged
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lock and key hypothesis
one substrate fits into active site

active site does not change shape and is complementary
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induced fit hypothesis
active site is not initially complementary to substrate

the shape of active site then changes, so that it fits around the substrate

caused by the distorted bonds in the substrate, leading to a reaction
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rate of enzyme activity: temperature
**as temperature increases**:

more kinetic energy, more frequent collisions, increase in enzyme-substrate complexes forming, rate increasing

temperature increases **above optimum**:

hydrogen bonds break, change in the 3D tertiary shape, change in shape of the active site, can no longer form enzyme-substrate complexes, enzymes denatures
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rate of enzyme activity: pH
pH changes from optimum:

(hydrogen/ionic) bonds are broken, 3D tertiary shape is altered, active site changes shape, can no longer form enzyme-substrate complexes, enzyme denatures
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rate of enzyme activity: substrate/enzyme concentration
more substrate/enzyme = faster rate

until no longer the limiting factor
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competitive inhibitor
similar shape to the substrate so can bind to active

if it blocks the active site, fewer enzyme-substrate complexes form, lower rate of reaction

temporary and no overall damage to enzyme so reaches same final point at slower rate

to increase rate add more substrate
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non-competitive inhibitor
attaches to enzyme away from the active site, altering the 3D tertiary structure, changing the shape of the active site and can no longer form enzyme-substrate complexes

adding more substrate has no effect due to enzymes being permanently altered
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enzyme practical: control tubes
milk and water

= indicate colour of absence of enzyme activity

milk and hydrochloric acid

= indicate colour of complete hydrolysis of sample
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enzyme practical: why are test tubes placed in water bath of set temperature for 5 mins before enzyme is added
to equilibrate temperature
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enzyme practical: rate of reaction equation
rate of reaction = 1 / mean time to turn completely colourless
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monomer of nucleic acid (DNA/RNA)
nucleotide
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bond between nucleotides
phosphodiester

between pentose sugar and phosphate group
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nucleotide structure
phosphate group

pentose sugar (deoxyribose, ribose)

nitrogen-containing base
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double-helix structure of DNA
DNA nucleotides join to form 2 polynucleotide strands

nucleotides join up between phosphate and pentose sugar, creating sugar-phosphate backbone

hydrogen bonds between 2 strands
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how is DNA a stable molecule
2 strands with specific base pairing

large number of hydrogen bonds

helix shape, reduces molecular damage

strong sugar-phosphate backbone
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specific base pairing
each base only pairs with one specific base/one complementary base pairing

adenine to thymine

cytosine to guanine
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DNA replication

1. occurs through semi-conservative replication
2. DNA helicase breaks hydrogen bonds between DNA strands
3. DNA uncoils, exposing the bases, and both strands act as a template
4. free DNA nucleotides are attracted to and bind with exposed bases
5. bases bind through specific base pairing: adenine to thymine and cytosine to guanine
6. DNA polymerase joins adjacent nucleotides by condensation reactions
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semi-conservative replication
new strand of DNA is built on each of the original 2 strands so that the new DNA molecules are identical to original

each of the two new molecules of DNA has one of the original strands and one new strands
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scientists that discovered model of DNA and DNA replication
Watson and Crick

Rosalind Franklin
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ATP structure
adenosine triphosphate consists of

adenine, nitrogen-containing base

ribose sugar

3 phosphate groups
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ATP hydrolysis enzyme
ATP hydrolase

ATP → ADP + Pi
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ATP resynthesis enzyme
ATP synthase

(during photosynthesis and respiration)
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why a large amount of ATP is required
ATP cannot be stored/immediate source of energy

release small amounts of energy at a time
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why ATP is a suitable source of energy
small amount of energy lost as heat

releases energy instantaneously, immediate source

phosphorylates other compounds, makes them more reactive

rapidly re-synthesised

is not lost/does not leave cell
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properties of water
**metabolite** in metabolic reactions like condensation and hydrolysis

**solvent** so reactions can occur, allowing transport of substances

**high heat capacity** so buffers changes in temperature

**latent heat of vaporisation** so provides cooling effect with loss of water through evaporation

**cohesion** so supports column of water in tube-like transport cells of plants and produces surface tension where water meets air
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examples of inorganic ions
hydrogen ions related to pH

iron ions related to haemoglobin

sodium ions related to co-transport of glucose and amino acids

phosphate ions related to DNA, RNA, and ATP