Chapter 11

Q: What is a pidgin?

A: A simplified contact language created between groups without a shared language. No native speakers; mixes features of different languages.

Q: What is a creole?

A: A language that develops from a pidgin and becomes a community’s first language. Main difference: creole = native language, pidgin = not.

Q: What are World Englishes?

A: Varieties of English developed worldwide, adapted to local needs and cultures.

Q: What is a dialect?

A: A variety of a language linked to geography or social background, with distinctive vocabulary and accent, but usually still understandable to other speakers of the same language.

Q: Why is English considered powerful and prestigious?

A: It is linked with wealth, education, and global influence. English speakers have more opportunities.

Q: How did English spread globally?

A: Through British Empire expansion, colonisation, and trade (including the triangular trade).

Q: Why do governments promote English learning?

A: To give citizens economic, educational, and international opportunities, and raise the nation’s global status.

Q: What was the triangular trade?

A: A trade system between Britain, Africa, and the Americas/Caribbean:

• Goods (e.g. textiles, weapons) → Africa for slaves.

• Slaves (via Middle Passage) → Americas for crops (sugar, tobacco, cotton).

• Crops → Britain for manufacturing.

Q: How did the triangular trade influence language?

A: English spread to colonised regions along the routes, many now in Kachru’s outer circle.

Q: What were the main languages in pre-colonial Nigeria?

A: Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba (plus many others).

Q: How did English become established in Nigeria?

A:

• British colonial rule and trade dominance.

• Missionaries teaching English and Western values.

• Association of English with education, literacy, and success.

Q: What happened after Nigeria’s independence (1960)?

A: English remained vital in government, education, business, and literature.

Q: How important is English in Nigeria today?

A: It’s the most widely spoken lingua franca, though only ~50% speak it. Education is in English, and passing an English exam is compulsory.

Q: What circle of Kachru’s model does Nigerian English belong to?

A: The outer circle.

Q: Phonology feature: How are vowels pronounced? (Nigerian case study from now onwards)

A: All vowels are short (e.g. away → aweh).

Q: Phonology feature: How are final consonants pronounced?

A: Voiced consonants become voiceless (e.g. was → wass).

Q: Phonology feature: How are “th” sounds pronounced?

A: As alveolar plosives (e.g. that → dat).

Q: Morphology feature?

A: Makes plurals of non-count nouns (e.g. informations).

Q: Lexicology feature?

A: Neologisms for unique situations (e.g. Jambito = first-year uni student; NEPA has taken the light! = power cut).

Q: Syntax feature?

A: Uses irregular tag questions (e.g. They look happy, isn’t it?).

Q: Discourse & Pragmatics feature?

A: Frequent use of respectful titles (e.g. chief, honourable, sir).

Q: Semantics feature?

A: Unique idioms (e.g. not on seat = away from office; go slow = traffic jam; take in = pregnant).

Q: Give examples of Nigerian English vocabulary.

A: ‘Jambito’ (1st-year student), “NEPA has taken the light!” (blackout).

Q: What is Jamaican Patwa?

A: An English-based creole developed during slavery era in Jamaica; today a symbol of cultural identity.

Q: Features of Jamaican Patwa morphology?

A: Uses ‘dem’ as plural marker (‘di buk dem’ = the books).

Q: Give examples of Jamaican Patwa idioms.

A: ‘Walk good’ = goodbye; ‘belly’ = pregnant.

Q: How did Singlish form?

A: British trading post (1819) + multilingual contact (Malay, Tamil, Hokkien, English) → pidgin → creole.

Q: What government campaign targeted Singlish?

A: “Speak Good English Movement” (2000). Seen as “bad English.” Countered by “Save our Singlish.”

Q: Example of Singlish lexicon?

A: ‘angpow’ = red packet; ‘kena’ = to suffer bad luck.

Q: What is a common Singlish particle?

A: ‘lah’ for emphasis (‘Do it properly, lah’).

Q: Why are creoles sometimes dismissed as “broken English”?

A: Misconception from comparing them to English; they’re independent systems with their own grammar.

Q: Did English begin as a creole?

A: No. Old English was a blend of Germanic languages, not a creole from forced contact.