Human Growth and Development Module 1

Approaches and Theories of Human Development

Lifespan development

the ways in which people grow, change, and stay the same throughout their lives from conception until death

phases of life

prenatal (conception - birth)

infancy and toddlerhood (birth - 2 yrs)

early childhood (2 - 6 yrs)

middle childhood (6-11 yrs)

adolescence (12-18 yrs)

early adulthood (18-40 yrs)

middle adulthood (40-65 yrs)

late adulthood (65+)

death

what are the 3 basic issues of human development

1. is development continuous or discontinuous

2. what are the roles of genetic and environmental factors in development

3. does one course of development characterize all people or are there many possible courses

continuous development

gradual, smooth changes across the lifespan

discontinuous

new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at different times; changes occur in distinct stages

nature

developmental change is caused by genetics, maturational processes, and evolution

nurture

individuals are molded by the physical and social environment in which they are raised, including the home, school, workplace, neighborhood, and society

multidimensional

intricate blend of biological, psychosocial, and social factors

multidirectional

consists of gains/losses and growth/decline

elastic

changeable based on our environment

influenced by multiple contexts

age-graded influences

history-graded influences

nonnormative influences

theory

an orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains and predicts behavior

psychoanalytic theories

development is shaped through a series of stages in which people confront conflicts between BIOLOGICAL DRIVES and SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS

Freud’s psychosexual theory

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

behaviorism/learning theories

conditioning/social learning

cognitive theories

piaget/information processing

humanistic theories

maslow

sociocultural theories

vygotsky/bronfenbrenner

moral development theory

Kolberg

Freud’s Psychosocial Theory

behavior is driven by unconscious impulses that are outside our awareness

psychosexual stages - how parents manage child’s sexual drives influences development

Freud Conscious Level - EGO

executive mediating between id impulses and superego inhibitions

testing reality

rational

operates mainly at conscious level but also at preconscious level

Freud Preconscious Level - SUPEREGO

ideals and morals

striving for perfection

incorporated from parents

becoming a person’s conscience

operates mostly at a preconscious level

Freud Unconscious Level - ID

basic impulses (sex and aggression)

seeking immediate gratification

irrational and impulsive

operates at unconscious level

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

Oral

Anal

Phallic

Latency

Genital

Oral

age: 0-18 months

description: learns about the world through oral interactions

important events: feeding

failure to achieve: behaviors centered around mouth (nail biting, overeating)

Anal

age: 18 months - 3 yrs

description: basic drives oriented towards anus

important events: toilet training

failure to achieve: control issues

phallic

age: 3-6 yrs

description: romantic desire for opposite sex parent and hostility/fear of same sex parent

important events: interaction with same-sex parent to adopt his/her behaviors and roles

failure to achieve: deviancy, sexual dysfunction

latency

age: 6-12 yrs

description: time of calm between stages when child develops skills, no sexual interests

important events: school, sports, friendships

failure to achieve: N/A

Genital

age: 12+ years

description: basic drives become oriented towards genitals with physical changes of puberty

important events: sexual interests, sexual satisfaction in relationships

failure to achieve: frigidity, impotence

Erikson’s psychosocial theory

in each stage of development, people experience a basic psychosocial conflict that affects development

each stage has two contradictory emotional forces

resolution of stage leads to healthy personality and successful interactions with others

Erikson’s stages of development

infancy

toddler

preschool

school age

adolescence

young adulthood

middle adulthood

late adulthood

infancy

Ages: birth - 1 year

Conflict: Trust vs. Mustrust

Description: Infants learn to trust that others will fulfill their basic needs or to lack confidence that their needs will be met

Toddler

Ages: 1-3 yrs

Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame

Description: Toddlers learn to be self-sufficient and independent through toilet training, feeding, walking, talking; or lack of confidence in their own abilities

Preschool

Ages: 3-6 yrs

Conflict: initiative vs guilt

Description: young children become inquisitive, ambitious and eager for responsibility or experience guilt for their curiosity

school age

Ages: 6-11 yrs

Conflict: industry vs inferiority

Description: children learn to work hard, be productive, and develop competence at school, home, and with friendships, or experience difficulty, leading to feelings of inadequacy

adolescence

Ages: 12-18 yrs

Conflict: identity vs role confusion

Description: adolescents search for a sense of self by experimenting with roles. They look to answer “Who am I?” in terms of career and personal goals, or remain confused about who they are

young adulthood

Ages: 19-40 yrs

Conflict: intimacy vs isolation

Description: young adults develop close relationships with others or experience isolation through difficulty developing relationships or self-absorption

middle adulthood

Ages: 40-65 yrs

Conflict: generativity vs. stagnation

Description: work and parenthood are important in this stage. adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them. success leads to feelings of accomplishments and failure results in feelings of lack of involvement in the world

late adulthood

Ages: 65+

Conflict: integrity vs. despair

Description: older adults look back on life to make sense of it, accept mistakes, and view life as meaningful and productive, or feel despair over goals never reached

behaviorism/learning theory

the study of behavior that can be observed

all behavior is influenced by the physical and social environment

classical conditioning

operant conditioning

classical conditioning

a neutral stimulus is associated with a natural response

ex: a dog salivating to the sound of a whistle

dog sees food (unconditioned stimulus) and salivates

Before conditioning the dog will not salivate to the whistle

whistle and food used in tandem during conditioning → triggers salivation response in dog

After conditioning: dog will salivate when he hears whistle because he associated the whistle with the food

Operant conditioning

a response in increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment

Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)

People actively process information by thinking and feeling emotion, and their thoughts and feelings influence their behavior

we do not need to experience punishment or reinforcement to change our behavior

we can learn by thinking about potential consequences of our actions

Bobo doll study

experiment done by Bandura showed that children learn aggressive behaviors by observing adults

kids who watched an adult act aggressively toward a Bobo doll were more likely to imitate that aggression themselves

Observational learning/modeling

learning occurs through observation and imitation of others

reciprocal determinism

individuals and the environment interact and influence each other

3 major types of behavioral learning

classical conditioning

operant conditioning

observational learning

Piaget’s Cognitive-Development Theory

explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world

cognitive development is a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment

3 components to piaget’s theory

1. children organize their knowledge into schemas that are used to understand and respond to situations and their environment

2. adaptation processes enable the transition from one stage to another; building upon previous knowledge

3. applying new knowledge/information into existing schemas (assimilation)

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor

pre-operations

concrete operations

formal operations

sensorimotor

age: birth-2 years

description: infants understand the world and think using only their senses and motor skills

pre-operations

age: 2-6 yrs

description: children do not yet understand concrete logic and cannot see things from different points of view. Preschoolers are able to explore the world using their own thoughts as guides

concrete operations

age: 7 - 11 years

description: thought processes become more mature and start solving problems in more logical fashion. Abstract, hypothetical thinking is NOT YET DEVELOPED so can only solve problems that apply to concrete objects or events

formal operations

age: 12+ years

description: person is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning and can think about abstract concepts

Cognitive theory: information processing theory

based on the idea that humans process information that receive, rather that just responding to stimuli

views thinking as information processing and that the mind works like a computer

as children grow, their brains mature, which leads to advances in their ability to process and respond to information they receive through senses

continuous pattern of development

Humanistic theory

people are intrinsically good and have an innate drive to be better

Maslows humanistic theory of motivation

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A theory that human motivation is organized into five levels—physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization—with lower-level needs needing to be met before higher-level needs can be fully pursued.

Basic needs - physiological and safety needs

Psychological Needs - belongingness and love, esteem

Self-fulfillment needs - self actualization (achieving one’s full potential)

Sociocultural systems theories

emphasizes the role of sociocultural context in development

two viewpoints: vygotosky and bronfenbrenner

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

focuses on how culture is transmitted generational

emphasizes the importance of sociocultural contexts and social interactions for learning and cognitive development

zone of proximal development

Zone of proximal development

area in which a person is prepared to learn but requires social interactions to fully develop

more skilled individuals guide learning within this zone to acquire learning

Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Systems Theory

development is a result of the ongoing interaction among biological, cognitive, and psychological changes within the person and his/her changing context

4 ecological systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem

Microsystem

immediate surroundings and relationships

Mesosystem

interaction between aspects of the microsystem

Exosystem

indirect environment

Macrosystem

social and cultural values

Theory of moral development

3 levels and 6 stages in which individuals develop morality throughout life

1: obedience and punishment

2: individual interest

3: interpersonal

4: authority

5: social contract

6: universal ethics

Stage 1: obedience and punishment

behavior driven by avoiding punishment

stage 2: individual interest

behavior driven by self-interest and rewards

stage 3: interpersonal

behavior driven by social approval

stage 4: authority

behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order

stage 5: social contract

behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights

stage 6: universal ethics

behavior driven by internal moral principles