Midterm Review - Research and Stats

Flashcards covering key terms and concepts from the midterm review on research, statistics, neuroscience, cognition, learning, and development.

Independent Variable

The variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

The variable in an experiment that is measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Operational Definitions

Specific definitions of variables in a study that allow them to be measured.

Correlational Study

A research method that assesses the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to arrive at a comprehensive conclusion.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method in which subjects are observed in their natural environment without manipulation.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of a single subject or group to explore related phenomena.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables are related.

Mean

The average of a set of numbers, found by dividing the sum of the values by the number of values.

Median

The middle value in a list of numbers, which separates the higher half from the lower half.

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two different modes.

Normal Distribution

A probability distribution that is symmetrical around the mean, showing that data near the mean are more frequent in occurrence.

Skewed Distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around the average value.

Random Selection

A process for selecting participants for a study in which each individual has an equal chance of being chosen.

Confounding Variables

Variables that are not accounted for in an experiment and can affect the results.

Replication

The process of repeating a study or experiment to verify the results.

Generalization

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to settings, people, times, and measures beyond the study conditions.

Ethical Guidelines

Principles and standards designed to guide research practices and protect participants' welfare.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists.

Identical Twins

Twins that develop from a single fertilized egg and share 100% of their genes.

Fraternal Twins

Twins that develop from two separate eggs and share about 50% of their genes.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A brain imaging technique that measures blood flow to areas of the brain, indicating activity.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the firing of neurons within the brain.

Hippocampus

A brain structure involved in the formation of new memories and is associated with learning.

Broca’s Area

An area in the frontal lobe associated with the production of speech.

Reticular Formation

A network of neurons in the brain that is important for arousal and attention.

Thalamus

The brain's relay station, which receives and directs sensory information to appropriate areas.

Hypothalamus

A brain region controlling the pituitary gland and regulating various bodily functions, including hunger and temperature.

Amygdala

A brain region involved in emotion regulation, particularly fear and anger.

Cerebellum

A brain structure that regulates motor control, balance, and coordination.

Corpus Callosum

A bundle of neural fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain.

Left Brain

The hemisphere of the brain typically associated with logical reasoning, analytical thought, and language.

Right Brain

The hemisphere of the brain often associated with creativity, intuition, and spatial ability.

Brain Plasticity

The brain's ability to change and adapt as a result of experience.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter.

Agonist

A substance that mimics or amplifies the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron after being released.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter associated with muscle movement, learning, and memory.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter linked to pleasure, motivation, and reward.

GABA

A neurotransmitter that inhibits neural activity and contributes to calming effects.

Endorphins

Natural chemicals in the body that relieve pain and improve mood.

Oxytocin

A hormone and neurotransmitter associated with bonding, social interactions, and reproduction.

Depressants

Substances that decrease neural activity and slow bodily functions.

Stimulants

Substances that increase neural activity and elevate mood, energy, and alertness.

Opiates

Drugs derived from opium, known for their pain-relieving properties.

Hallucinogens

Substances that cause altered states of perception and consciousness.

Circadian Rhythm

The body's internal clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle over a 24-hour period.

Sleep Apnea

A disorder characterized by repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Insomnia

A chronic condition in which individuals have difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Night Terrors

Episodes of intense fear that occur during sleep, often accompanied by screaming and thrashing.

Activation-synthesis Theory

The theory suggesting that dreams are a byproduct of the brain's attempt to make sense of neural activity during sleep.

NREM Sleep

A period of sleep with non-rapid eye movement, during which the body rests and recuperates.

REM Rebound

The phenomenon of increased REM sleep following periods of sleep deprivation.

Sensory Interaction

The principle that one sensory modality may influence another.

Kinesthesis

The sense that provides information about body position and movement.

Vestibular System

A sensory system located in the inner ear that helps balance and spatial orientation.

Monochromatism

A condition in which an individual can only perceive shades of one color.

Inattentional Blindness

The failure to notice a fully visible, but unexpected object because attention was engaged elsewhere.

Sensory Adaptation

The diminished sensitivity to a stimulus as a consequence of constant exposure.

Difference Threshold

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

Weber's Law

The principle that states the difference threshold is proportional to the intensity of the stimulus.

Rods

Photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for vision in low light.

Cones

Photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for color vision and detail.

Lens

A transparent structure in the eye that focuses light onto the retina.

Optic Nerve

The nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.

Retina

The layer of photoreceptors in the back of the eye that detects light.

Cornea

The transparent front layer of the eye that helps to focus light.

Opponent-process Theory

A theory of color vision that proposes that colors are perceived in opposites and that staring at one color creates an afterimage of the other.

Trichromatic Theory

A theory of color vision that proposes that the eye has three types of cones sensitive to red, blue, and green light.

Subliminal Perception

The processing of information by sensory systems without conscious awareness.

Selective Attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment.

Pitch Theories

Theories explaining how the perception of sound frequency is processed by the brain.

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Priming

The activation of certain associations in memory just before carrying out an action or task.

Gestalt Principles

The set of principles that describe how we organize visual information into meaningful wholes.

Depth Perception Cues

Visual cues that provide information about depth and distance.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

A belief or expectation that influences a person's behavior in a way that causes the belief to come true.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to one's initial belief even after receiving new information that contradicts that belief.

Heuristic

A mental shortcut that allows people to solve problems quickly but is not always effective.

Availability Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of events based on how readily examples come to mind.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype.

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category.

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem.

Mental Set

A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often based on past experience.

Divergent Thinking

A thought process or method used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.

Convergent Thinking

A thought process that focuses on finding a single best solution to a problem.

Functional Fixedness

A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

Gambler’s Fallacy

The mistaken belief that past probabilities affect future probabilities in a random event.

Short-term Memory

A memory system that holds a small amount of information for a brief period.

Maintenance Rehearsal

The process of repeatedly verbalizing or thinking about a piece of information to encode it into memory.

Retroactive Amnesia

Forgetting old information due to new information interfering with memory.

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new memories following an event.