Chapter 2: Psychological Research

These flashcards cover key terms and concepts related to psychological research, including methodologies, types of reasoning, and ethical considerations.

Inductive reasoning

Conclusions are drawn from observations.

Deductive reasoning

Results are predicted based on a general premise.

Theory

A system of ideas that explains a phenomenon or guides research.

Hypothesis

A tentative & testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

Naturalistic Obersation

A research method involving the systematic observation of behavior in a natural setting without interference.

Structured Observations

A research method where behaviors are observed in a controlled environment, often using specific coding systems to quantify observations.

Observer bias

When observations tend to align with observer expectations.

Operational definition

How you will measure the variables.

Survey

A research method that collects data from respondents through questions, allowing for analysis of opinions, behaviors, or characteristics.

Archival Research

A research method that involves analyzing existing data or records to find patterns and insights.

Longitudinal Research

Studies in which the same group is surveyed repeatedly over an extended period of time.

Cross-Sectional Research

Compares multiple segments of a population at a single time.

Correlational research

A study that examines the relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

The statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables fluctuate together, indicating both the strength and direction of their relationship.

Correlation

When two variables are correlated one variable changes as the other does.

Scatterplots

Graphs that show the relationship between two variables, displaying points for each data pair. The stronger the correlation the closer the data points are to a straight line.

Positive Correlation 

A relationship where increases in one variable lead to increases in another variable, or decreases in one correspondingly lead to decreases in the other.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where increases in one variable lead to decreases in another variable, indicating an inverse relationship.

Zero Correlation

A relationship where no consistent pattern of change exists between two variables, meaning changes in one variable do not predict changes in the other.

Causation

Refers to the relationship where one variable directly influences the change in another variable, indicating a cause-and-effect relationship which can only be determined through an experiment.

Confounding variable

An unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest.

Illusory Correlations

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists, often due to cognitive biases.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to ignore evidence that disproves beliefs.

Testing Causality

The process of establishing a cause-and-effect relationship between variables in a study through various methods.

Independent Variable

A variable that is manipulated or changed in an experiment to observe its effect on a dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

A variable that is measured in an experiment to assess the impact of the independent variable.

Experimental group

In research, this refers to the presence of two different conditions of an independent variable that allows for comparison and analysis of effects on the dependent variable.

Control group

A group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention, used as a benchmark to measure the effects of the independent variable.

Operational Definition

A specific explanation of a variable or concept used in research, detailing how it will be measured or identified.

Experimenter Bias

A cognitive bias that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences influence the outcome of an experiment or study.

Participant Bias

A cognitive bias where participants' expectations or beliefs about the study affect their behavior or responses, potentially skewing the results.

Single-blind study

A type of study where participants are unaware of the treatment they receive, minimizing their biases while the researchers know the treatment conditions.

Double-blind study

A study design in which neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the treatment, helping to eliminate both participant and experimenter biases.

Placebo effect

Occurs when people's expectations or beliefs influence their experience.

Sample

A subset of a population used in a study to draw conclusions about the larger group.

Population

The entire group of individuals or instances about whom we hope to learn or draw conclusions in a study.

Convenience Sample

A non-probability sampling method where participants are selected based on their easy availability and proximity to the researcher, rather than random selection.

Random Sample

A sampling method where each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected, ensuring unbiased representation.

Random Assignment

All participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group.

Quasi-experimental research

Research without random assignment; cannot determine cause-and-effect.

Peer-reviewed journal article

An article that has been reviewed by several experts before publication.

Reliability

The consistency of a measure, yielding similar results every time.

Inter-rater reliability

The agreement among observers on how they record and classify an event.

Internal consistency

A measure of the reliability of a test or scale, indicating how well items in a set are correlated with each other.

Test-retest reliability

A measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of test scores over time by administering the same test to the same group on different occasions.

Validity

The accuracy of a given result; whether it measures what it intends to measure.

Face validity

The degree to which a test appears to measure what it is supposed to measure, based on intuitive judgment.

Content Validity

The extent to which a test measures the entire content it is intended to assess, ensuring it covers all relevant aspects.

Construct Validity

The degree to which a test accurately measures the theoretical construct it is designed to assess, demonstrating that the test relates to other measures as expected.

Concurrent Validity

The degree to which test results correlate with other measures or outcomes assessed simultaneously, indicating that the test accurately reflects the current state of the construct.

Predictive Validity

The extent to which a test predicts future performance or outcomes related to the construct it measures, demonstrating its effectiveness in forecasting.

External/Ecological Validity

The degree to which research findings can be generalized to real-world settings and populations outside of the study conditions. It assesses whether the results are applicable in everyday life.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews and approves research proposals involving human participants.

Informed consent

Informing potential participants about what to expect and obtaining their agreement to participate.

Deception in research

Purposely misleading participants to maintain the integrity of the experiment and to prevent bias

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the true nature of a study after their involvement, including any deception used, and addressing any questions or concerns they may have.

Psychological Research

The scientific study of the mind and behavior, encompassing various methodologies to explore psychological phenomena.

Clinical or case studies

In-depth investigations of a single person, group, or event to explore complex phenomena.