• Describe the Earth’s geosphere, including where the matter came from and how it formed three layers differing in composition.

1. Crust: The outermost layer, composed mainly of solid rock. It is divided into continental crust (thicker and less dense) and oceanic crust (thinner and more viscous). The matter for the crust originated from the cooling and solidification of molten rock called magma.

2. Mantle: The middle layer, located beneath the crust. It is composed of solid rock but with some regions that behave like a viscous fluid over long periods. The mantle’s matter originated from the early Earth’s formation and subsequent differentiation.

3. Core: The innermost layer consists of the outer and inner core. The outer core is liquid, primarily composed of molten iron and nickel. The inner core is solid due to high pressure. The matter for the core is believed to have originated from the collision of planetesimals during the early stages of Earth’s formation.

   Summary: The matter making up Earth came from the accretion disk. Early Earth was made entirely of Magma due to the high impact speeds of asteroids accreting together when Earth was still forming. Because Magma is a liquid, the denser materials like iron and nickel sink to the middle, which is the center point of gravity. The medium-density material began the mantle, and the least thick material stayed on the surface, forming the crust.

• Define and differentiate between different types of matter, like elements, compounds, minerals, and rocks.

Elements: A pure substance made of only one type of atom

Compounds: A mix of different elements to create a new chemical composition.

Minerals: A crystalline structure with a definite chemical composition, is inorganic, is naturally occurring, and is a solid. They are the building blocks of rocks.

Rock: A solid made from different combined minerals and other natural materials. It does not have a similar pattern throughout.

• Know the most common elements, mineral groups, and minerals of the Earth’s crust and why they are the most common.

The most common elements are silicon and oxygen. These two minerals make silicate minerals; thus, silicates are the most common minerals of Earth’s crust. Other common mineral groups are Sulfides, Oxides, and Carbonates. Other common elements are Sulfur and Carbon. These elements are common in the crust because of their abundance in the Earth’s mantle. Common minerals are feldspars, quartz, mica, pyroxene, and Amphibole.

• List and describe three ways minerals form and how conditions of formation affect the mineral properties like the size of crystals, internal crystalline structure, or arrangement of minerals into bands or planes

1. The chemical composition changes through Magma and intense heat, which cool together, forming minerals. Slow cooling creates larger crystals, while rapid cooling results in smaller crystals. The internal crystalline structure is determined by the arrangement of atoms during solidification.

2. Minerals from another source are left behind after the source evaporates—the concentration of dissolved substances, temperature, and pressure influence crystal size. Higher concentrations and slower precipitation lead to larger crystals, while lower concentrations and faster precipitation result in smaller crystals.

3. A mineral is put under intense heat and pressure so that its chemical composition changes. This system does not use melting. The intensity of heat and pressure affects crystal size and internal structure. High temperatures and pressures can cause minerals to recrystallize, resulting in larger crystals and reorganizing their internal structure.

• Give the 5 part definition of a mineral and use it to classify matter as mineral or not using claim, evidence, and reasoning statements.

The 5 part definition of a mineral is that it is solid, inorganic, has a definite chemical composition, a crystalline structure, and is naturally occurring. An example of a CER of this would be:

Granite is not a mineral. Granite is not a mineral because if you break it, it will not have well-defined faces or edges. This proves it does not have the crystalline structure required to be a mineral. Therefore, granite is not a mineral.

• Understand how the chemical components and arrangement give minerals their different physical properties like hardness, magnetism, reaction to acid, color, etc. (diamond vs. graphite or quartz vs. Calcite or magnetite, for example)

Arrangement can cause different hardness, like with graphite and diamond. The minerals can vary in hardness depending on how the tetrahedrons are arranged. Some arrangements, like with diamonds, are hexagonal, causing it to be tough. However, if the arrangements are put together with flat plains, like in graphite, they get very soft despite both graphite and diamond having the same chemical components. The opposite can happen as well. Quartz and Calcite have the same arrangement of their tetrahedrons (hexagonal). Still, because quartz is made out of silicon and oxygen, it is much more complicated than Calcite because it is made of softer elements, calcium, and carbon. Magnetite is a unique mineral because its tetrahedrons are arranged in such a way that makes Magnetite magnetic.

• List the physical properties used to identify a mineral and be able to describe how to perform tests like streak or use of Moh’s scale of hardness, double refraction, acid reaction, fluorescence, etc.

There are many types of tests used to determine mineral identity. Magnetite is the only magnetic material, so a simple magnet test will work to resolve it. Calcite also double-refracts and reacts to acid, so those tests can also assess Calcite. Fluorite is fluorescent under UV light, so another test was done to determine fluorite. More vague scales are scraping a mineral on glass, a steel nail, or your fingernail to determine its hardness on the Mohs scale of hardness. You can also test the streak by rubbing a mineral on a ceramic tile, and its color (or lack thereof) can be used to determine mineral identity further. You can also use mineral cleavage/fracture, color, and luster. Other niche determinations include Taste, Reflection/Glassy, and layers (none, thick, thin).

• Read chemical formulas for minerals, including the name of elements present and ratios if given a periodic table of elements, including minerals in which substitution occurs.

What element is K (Potassium)

What element is SI (Silicon)

What element is O (Oxygen)

What element is CO (Carbon)

What element is CA (Calcium)

What element is AU (Gold)

What element is S (Sulfur)

• Explain how minerals are classified and be able to organize a mineral into the five mineral groups we studied if given the chemical formula for that mineral.

There are five main mineral groups.

-Native elements: these minerals are made out of one element only. Thus, the chemical formula only has one component. An example is gold.

-Silicates: These are the most popular type of mineral. Their chemical formulas always end in SIx, Oy (Silicon x, Oxygen y). An example is quartz.

-Carbonates: These minerals have a chemical formula that ends in CO3 (Carbonate 3). An example is Calcite.

-Oxides: These minerals’ chemical formulas end in Ox (Oxygen x). An example is Hematite.

-Sulfides: These minerals end in S2 (Sulfur x). An example is Galena

• Identify a mineral given physical properties or test kit and the reference docs used in the lab.

To identify a mineral given physical properties or a test kit, you can use the following reference documents commonly used in a lab setting:

-Mineral identification charts or tables: These provide a systematic approach to identifying minerals based on their physical properties such as color, luster, hardness, cleavage, and specific gravity.

-Mohs hardness scale: This scale ranks minerals based on their relative hardness, allowing you to determine the hardness of an unknown mineral by comparing it to known minerals of different hardness levels. You can test hardness by scraping it against glass, a steel nail, or your fingernail.

-Streak plate: A streak plate is an unglazed porcelain tile used to determine the color of a mineral’s streak, which is the color of the powdered mineral (or lack thereof) when scraped against the plate.

-Acid test kit: An acid test kit contains various dilute acids that can be used to test a mineral’s reaction to acid, helping to identify carbonate minerals, like Calcite.

Other ways include UV light testing for fluorescence and magnetic testing.

• Name and describe the distinguishing characteristics of the three rock groups. 

Sedimentary: No foliation patterns, no intergrown crystals, often has rounded mineral grains, dull earthy colors, layers, reacts to acid, can have fossils—examples: Sandstone and limestone.

Igneous: Intergrown individual mineral crystals OR gasy/glassy texture; sometimes mineral crystals are too small to see, NO patterns like bedding planes or foliation, NO reaction to acid. Example: Basalt.

Metamorphic: Can have foliation patterns; some have lots of Mica, may have a reaction to acid, NO bedding planes, and may have fossils. Examples: Marble and Slate. If it has a very well-defined foliation, it is metamorphic.

• Identify these characteristics in a rock sample to help you determine which of the three rock groups it belongs to

Rock A has no foliation patterns, intergrown individual crystals, and a lot of Mica. What type of rock is it? Rock A Igneous or Metamorphic. (Help describing metamorphic rocks)

Rock B has no intergrown crystals, a gasy texture, and reacts to acid. What type of rock is it? Sedimentary.

Rock C has minerals that are too small to see, a dull color, and no bedding planes. What type of rock is it? Igneous

Rock D has rounded mineral grains, no foliation, and fossils. What type of rock is it? Sedimentary.

• Explain how mineral matter recycles through the rock cycle processes and label them on a blank diagram.

All rock starts at Magma, then cools and solidifies into Igneous rock. The Igneous rock then weathers and erodes into the sediment. The sediment then becomes sedimentary rock through deposition, burial, compaction, and cementation. Further, the sedimentary rock can be put under heat and pressure to turn into metamorphic rock. Any rocks under heat and pressure will turn into metamorphic rock. Any stones that melt will be turned back into Magma. Any rocks that go through weathering will be turned into sediment.

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