CHAP : 1 -3 lecture exam ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

ALL OF CHAPTER 1

Grecian period 

Hippocrates (460-337 B.C.) – Attributed diseases to natural  causes rather than to the displeasure of the gods. Believed  in the concept of the four body humors: 

A. Sanguine Humor – associated with the liver 

B. Yellow Bile Humor – associated with the gallbladder

C. Phlegm Humor – associated with the lungs 

D. Melancholic or Black Bile Humor – associated with the  spleen 

Healthy people were believed to have a balance of the four  humors. Hippocrates is regarded as the “Father of Modern  Medicine”. His name is immortalized in the “Hippocratic  Oath – (do no harm)” taken by modern doctors. 

Grecian period 

2. Aristotle (384-332 B.C.) – made careful investigations of  animals. Wrote the following zoological books: History of  Animals, Parts of Animals, and Generation of Animals. 

contributions: scientific method, zoological books, and  1st known account of embryology

Grecian period 

3. Erasistratus (about 300 B.C.) – sometimes called the “Father of  Physiology”. Made observations on the heart, blood vessels,  and nervous system and described changes in organs  resulting from disease.  

Roman period

1. Claudius Galen (A.D. 130-201) – Dissected a few human  cadavers, but depended mainly on observations from the  dissection of animals. Made some accurate observations,  but also many errors. (Dissecting was O.K. during this period) 

Roman period

Middle Ages (Dark Ages) – Lasted from about 476 A.D. until about  1450 A.D. Dissection of cadavers was prohibited. Original  work stopped and people studied only the works of Galen and  earlier investigators. 

Renaissance (about 1450-1700) – Characterized by the rebirth of  science. Dissection of cadavers was again permitted. 

1. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) – Known as the “Father of  Modern Anatomy”. Published a book on anatomy as De  Humani Corporis Fabrica in which he corrected many of the  errors of Galen and others.

Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

1. William Harvey (1578-1657) – Published On The Movement of  the Heart and Blood in Animals (1628), which established  proof of the continuous circulation of the blood. Harvey is  sometimes referred to as the “Father of Modern Physiology”.

Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 

2. Antony van Leewenhoek (1632-1723) – Developed an  improved microscope and made observations on  

microorganisms and microscopic human structures and  tissues.

Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries

Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries – Formulation of the cell  theory and the implications it had for understanding the  structure and function of the human body.  

1. Johannes Müller – applied physics, chemistry, and psychology  to the study of the human body. 

SCIENTIFIC METHOD 

The scientific method is a process by which we gain information  about ourselves and the world in which we live. Six steps of  the scientific method include: 

1. Define the problem or question to be asked 

2. Go do library research, find out what has been done before,  see if your problem or question has been already been  done 

3. Formulation of the hypothesis or possible solution 

4. Testing of the hypothesis. Testing is accomplished by: A. Observation 

B. Experimentation 

5. Collect and record data of some form 

6. Draw a conclusion. Many times you have to rethink your  hypothesis, and do more experiments. Then you publish it 

Formulation of the theory:

Formulation of the theory: A theory is a hypothesis that has  been supported by observation and/or experimental evidence  over a long period of time.

** Actually, scientists attempt to disprove their hypotheses  rather than proving them. Hypotheses (or theories) that cannot  be disproven are eventually accepted as being correct. 

WAYS OF EXPLAINING NATURAL PHENOMENA 

1. Anthropomorphic Explanations – attribute human qualities to  the behavior of lower organisms. Not valid. 

2. Teleological Explanations – attribute purpose and reason to  lower organisms and nonliving materials. Not valid. 

3. Vitalistic Explanations – attribute life processes to a “vital  force”. The vital force has not been found and is, thus,  presumed not to exist.  This is a dead issue in science 

4. Mechanistic Explanations – attempt to explain life processes  on the basis of principles of chemistry and physics.  Modern science is mechanistic in its approach to  problem solving. 

CLASSIFICATION OF HUMANS

Kingdom Animalia 

Phylum Chordata 

 Subphylum Vertebrata 

Class Mammalia 

Order Primates 

Family Hominidae 

Humans belong to the Phylum Chordata. All chordates posses four  common characteristics at some time during their life cycle.

Characteristics of Chordata (Things that make us chordates)

1. Notochord – a dorsal rod of supporting connective tissue.  Vestiges of the notochord exist in the adult human as the  nucleus pulposus within each intervertebral disc. 

2. Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord – This “neural tube” develops into  the brain and spinal cord. Defects in neural tube  

development lead to the condition known as spina bifida  and ancephaly. 

3. Pharyngeal Pouches (or Pharyngeal Gill Slits) – One of the  gill slits in humans becomes the auditory eustachain  tube, which connects the middle ear and the pharynx. 

4. Postanal Tail – The postanal tail of humans is normally  resorbed before birth but may occasionally be present. 

Characteristics of Mammalia (Things that make us mammals) 

1. hair 

2. mammary glands 

3. three ear ossicles 

4. heterodont dentition (different kinds of teeth that are adapted  to handle food in different ways) 

5. fleshy external ear

Characteristics of Primates (Things that make us primates) 

1. digits modified for grasping 

2. prehensile hands 

3. relatively large well developed brain

Characteristics of Hominidae (Things that make us humans) 

1. A large, well-developed brain– the average weight of the  human brain is 1,350 to 1,400 grams; (large brain to  body weight ratio) 

2. Bipedal locomotion – upright posture affects the curvature of  the spine, anatomy of the hip and thighs, and the arches  of the feet. 

3. An opposable thumb – occurs in many other primates. 4. Well-developed vocal structures – allow humans to have  articulated speech. 

5. stereoscopic vision – provides depth perception, i.e. a three dimensional image. 

INTRODUCTION

Biology - the study of life; one of its goals is to discover the unity  and patterns that underlie the diversity of living organisms. 

Characteristics of Living Organisms  

All living things have certain common characteristics, including  responsiveness, growth, and differentiation, reproduction,  movement, and metabolism and excretion. 

responsiveness – the ability to respond to environmental stimuli. A  stimulus is an environmental change that brings about a  response

growth – an increase in cell size/ and or number. Cells increase in  size by the process of assimilation, i.e. the process by which  nonliving materials become changed into living material  (protoplasm) 

differentiation – individual cells become specialized 

reproduction – the production of new individuals. There are two  types of reproduction, asexual and sexual. Sexual  reproduction involves gametes (egg and sperm) 

movement – capable of producing movement either internally or  externally 

metabolism – the sum total of the chemical and physical reactions  by which life is sustained. There are two phases of  metabolism: 

anabolism – (anabolic metabolism) – Constructive  metabolism, ex.- protein synthesis 

catabolism – (catabolic metabolism) – destructive  

metabolism, e.g. glycolysis and the Kreb’s cycle 

excretion – elimination of waste products

THE SCIENCES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 

Anatomy – the study of internal and external structure and the  physical relationships among body parts.  

Physiology - the study of how living organisms perform vital  functions.  

Anatomy and Physiology are closely integrated theoretically and  practically. All specific functions are performed by specific  structures.

Anatomy

Anatomy can be divided into microscopic anatomy and gross  (macroscopic anatomy) 

microscopic anatomy – study of small structures visible only with  the aid of the microscope. The boundaries of microscopic  anatomy are established by the equipment used.  

cytology – study of the structure and function of cells histology - study of the structure and function of tissues 

gross (macroscopic) anatomy – study of large structures visible to  the unaided eye; it includes: 

surface anatomy – study of general form and superficial  markings 

regional anatomy – study of anatomical features in a specific  area of the body (ex.- head, neck, trunk) 

systemic anatomy – study of structure of organ systems (ex.- skeletal and muscular system) 

developmental anatomy – study of the changes in form that occur  between conception and physical maturity.  

embryology - study of processes that occur during the first two  months of development. 

Physiology

Human physiology - the study of the functions of the human body. 

cell physiology - the study of the functions of living cells

special physiology – the study of the physiology of specific  organs (ex.- cardiac physiology) 

systemic physiology – the study of all the aspects of the  function of specific organ systems (ex.- cardiovascular  physiology) 

pathological physiology – the study of the effects of diseases  on organ or system functions

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION 

Anatomical structures and physiological mechanisms are arranged  in a series of interacting levels of organization (Fig. 1-1, p. 5) 

atoms – smallest stable units of matter 

molecules – combined atoms (chemical or molecular  level of organization) 

organelles – molecules interacting  

cells – basic structural and functional unit of life, organelles working  together (cellular level of organization) 

tissues – group of cells working together that perform a specific  function (tissue level of organization) 

organs – group of tissues working together to perform a particular  function (organ level of organization) 

organ systems – group of organs working together to perform a  general function (organ system level of organization) 

The organization at each level determines the characteristics and  functions of higher levels. 

Something that affects a system will ultimately affect all its  components. 

AN INTRODUCTION TO ORGAN SYSTEMS 

The 11 organ systems of the body are the integumentary, skeletal,  muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic,  respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems (Fig.  1-2, p. 6-11) 

HOMEOSTASIS AND SYSTEM INTEGRATION 

Organ systems are interdependent, interconnected, and packaged  together in a relatively small space. 

Homeostatic regulation 

Homeostasis – the presence of a stable environment within the  body. Homeostasis is the foundation for all modern  physiology. 

homeostatic regulation – the adjustment of physiological systems  to preserve homeostasis. Two general mechanisms:  autoregulation and extrinsic regulation 

Autoregulation occurs when the activities of a cell, tissue,  organ, or system change automatically in response to an  environmental change. 

Extrinsic regulation results from the activities of the nervous  or endocrine system (both organ systems can control or  adjust the activities of many different systems simultaneously). 

nervous system performs crises management by directing rapid, short-term, and very specific  

responses. 

endocrine system releases hormones (chemical messengers) that affect tissues and organs  

throughout the body. 

Homeostatic regulation

Homeostatic regulation usually involves three parts:

1. receptor – sensor that is sensitive to a particular stimulus  (environmental change) 

2. control center (integration center) - that receives and  processes the information from the receptor 

3. effector – a cell or organ that responds to the commands of  the control center and whose activities have a direct or  indirect effect on the same stimulus.

negative , positive , and disease

Negative feedback – a corrective mechanism involving an action  that directly opposes a variation from normal limits. most  homeostatic regulatory mechanisms involve negative  feedback. (ex. - thermostatic temperature control, and  thermoregulation (control of body temperature). Fig. 1-4, p.  13 

Positive feedback - the initial stimulus produces a response that  exaggerates or enhances the stimulus. Homeostatic  regulatory mechanisms involving positive feedback are uncommon.

Positive feedback is important in controlling  physiological processes that must be completed quickly. (ex.  – process of labor) (Fig. 1-5, p. 15) 

disease – state when homeostatic regulation fails because of  infection, injury, or genetic abnormality. Organ systems begin  to malfunction. 

A FRAME OF REFERENCE FOR ANATOMICAL STUDIES

Anatomists created maps of the human body to help them  communicate.

Superficial Anatomy 

Standard anatomical illustrations show the body in the anatomical  position – the hands are at the sides with the palms facing  forward. Fig. 1-6, p. 16. If the figure is shown lying down, it  can be either supine (face up) or prone (face down) 

Two different approaches to describing anatomical regions of the  body: Fig. 1-7, p. 17 

abdominopelvic quadrants – 4 areas, used by physicians abdominopelvic regions – 9 regions, used by anatomists 

Special directional terms provide clarity in the description of  anatomical structures. Fig. 1-8, p. 18 and Table 1-2, p. 18 

You need to know (for the exam) the anatomical landmarks,  anatomical regions, and the directional terms

Sectional Anatomy 

The three sectional planes describe relationships among the parts  of the three-dimensional human body. Fig. 1-9, p. 19.

transverse plane – right angles to the long axis of the body;  divides the body into superior and inferior sections 

frontal (coronal) plane – parallel to the long axis of the body,  extends from side to side; divides the body into anterior  and posterior sections 

sagittal plane - parallel to the long axis of the body, extends  from front to back; divides the body into left and right  sections 

serial reconstruction – choose one sectional plane and make a  series of sections at small intervals; it permits the analysis of  complex structures, and it is an important technique for  analyzing images produced by radiological procedures. 

Body cavities: Fig. 1-11, p. 21 

• protect and cushion delicate organs  

• permit changes in the size and shape of visceral organs so  that they do not distort surrounding tissues and organs 

You need to know the location of each body cavity, and what  organs each body cavity contains  

Dorsal body cavity contains: cranial cavity (enclosing the brain)  and spinal cavity (surrounding the spinal cord)  

Ventral body cavity or coelom, surrounds developing respiratory  cardiovascular, digestive, urinary, and reproductive  organs. 

During development, the diaphragm divides the ventral body cavity  into the superior thoracic and inferior peritoneal cavities. 

By birth, the thoracic cavity contains two pleural cavities (each  containing a lung) and a pericardial cavity (which surrounds  the heart).  

The abdominopelvic cavity consists of the abdominal cavity and  the pelvic cavity. It contains the peritoneal cavity, an internal  chamber lined by a serous membrane, the peritoneum.

Focus: Sectional Anatomy and Clinical Technology 

Important radiological procedures (which can provide detailed  information about internal systems) include  

• scanning techniques that use beams of radiation

• methods that use (ingestion) of radioactive materials 

ex.- X-rays, CT, MRI, and ultrasound. Each technique has  advantages and disadvantages.