comp argument/fallacy quiz

argument

argument is a main idea, often called a "claim" or

"thesis statement," backed up with evidence that supports the idea

(usually complex and take time to develop)

reasoning

process of reaching conclusions on the basis of careful, reflective consideration of the available information

types of arguments

deduction, induction, abduction, analogy, fallacies

deduction (strongest form of an argument)

process of reasoning where the truth of the premises necessitates the truth of the conclusion (The conclusion cannot but be true if the premises are true)

ex of a valid deductive argument

All humans (A) are living beings (B)

All living beings (B) are mortal (C)

Therefore, all humans (A) are mortal (C).

induction

- observations about past instances and regularities lead to conclusions about future instances and general principles (based on statistical frequencies, which then lead to generalizations beyond the sample of cases initially under consideration)

- In contrast with a deductively valid argument, in this case the degree of support will never be maximal, as there is always the possibility of the conclusion being false given the truth of the premises (less strong)

ex of a good inductive argument

The observation that the sun has risen in the east every single day until now leads to the conclusion that it will rise in the east tomorrow, and to the general principle "the sun always rises in the east"

abduction

- from the observation of a few relevant facts, a conclusion is drawn as to what could possibly explain the occurrence of these facts

(taps into the well-known human tendency to seek (causal) explanations for phenomena)

- not neccessarily "truth-preserving"

- it does not only concern the generalization of prior observation for prediction, it is often backward-looking in that it seeks to explain something that has already happened.

ex of an abductive argument

The closing argument by a prosecutor in a court of law who, after summarizing the available evidence, concludes that the most plausible explanation for it is that the defendant must have committed the crime they are accused of

analogy

- if two things are similar, what is true of one of them is likely to be true of the other as well

- lesser degree of conviction than deductive, inductive, and abductive arguments.

ex of an analogical argument

1) If an alien species farmed humans for food, that would be wrong; so, by analogy, it is wrong for us humans to farm non-human animals for food

2) If chickens have wings (X), that would make them birds (Z); so, by analogy, penguins with wings (Y) are birds (Z).

fallacy

a flawed, deceptive, or false argument that can be proven wrong with reasoning

14 core fallacies

1.Ad Hominem

2. Straw Man

3. Appeal to Ignorance

4. False Dilemma/Dichotomy

5. Slippery Slope

6. Circular Argument

7.Hasty Generalization

8. Appeal to hypocrisy

9. Causual Fallacy

10 Sunk Cost

11. Appeal to Authority

12. Equivocation

13. Appeal to Pity

14. Bandwagon Fallacy

ad hominem

- uses personal attacks rather than logic.

-occurs when someone rejects or criticizes another point of view based on the personal characteristics, ethnic background, physical appearance, or other non-relevant traits of the person who holds it.

(ex from class: Ms. Lincoln tells Soph to stop drinking out of a plastic water bottle and Soph replies with "You're just a white girl.")

straw man

- attacks a different subject rather than the topic being discussed— often a sireme version of the counter argument.

- The fose of this misdirection is to make one's esition look stronger than it actually is.

- appropriately named after a harmless, lifeless scarecrow.

- Instead of contending with the actual argument, they attack the equivalent of a lifeless bundle of straw - an easily defeated puppet that the opponent was never arguing for in the first place.

appeal to ignorance

- argues that a proposition must be true because it has not been proven false or there is no evidence against it.

- doesn't prove anything.

- it shifts the need for proof away from the person making a claim.

false dilemma/dichotomy

- presents limited options — typically by focusing on two extremes — when in fact more possibilities exist.

- manipulative tool designed to polarize the audience, promoting one side and demonizing another.

slippery slope

- assumes that a certain course of action will necessarily. lead to a chain of future events.

- takes a benign premise or starting point and suggests that it will lead to unlikely or ridiculous outcomes with no supporting evidence.

(ex in class: Ms Lincoln asks to hang out with her friends but her mom says no because what if someones car breaks down, then theres an accident, then she possibly dies)

circular argument

- occur when a person's argument repeats what they. already assumed before without arriving at a new conclusion.

- often use a claim as both a premise and a conclusion.

- only appears to be an argument when in fact it's just restating one's assumptions.

hasty generalization

- claim based on a few examples rather than substantial proof.

-Arguments based on this often don't hold up due to a lack of supporting evidence: The claim might be true in one case, but that doesn't mean it's always true.

appeal to hypocrisy

- focuses on the hypocrisy of an opponent.

- It deflects criticism away from oneself by accusing the other person of the same problem or something comparable.

- An attempt to divert blame.

causal fallacy

informal fallacies that occur when an argument incorrectly concludes that a cause is related to an effect

sunk cost

- someone continues doing something because of the effort they already put in it, regardless of whether the additional costs outweigh the potential benefits.

- "Sunk cost" is an economic term for any past expenses that can no longer be recovered.

appeal to authority

- the misuse of an authority's opinion to support an argument.

- While an authority's opinion can represent evidence and data, it becomes a fallacy if their expertise or authority is overstated, illegitimate, or irrelevant to the topic.

(ex in class: I am doing this or I recommend it because MY DOCTOR (an authoritative figure)...)

appeal to pity

- relies on provoking your emotions to win an argument rather than factual evidence.

- Appealing to pity attempts to pull on an

audience's heartstrings, distract them, and support their point of view.

bandwagon fallacy

- something is true (or right or good) because others agree with it.

- the fallacy argues that if everyone thinks a certain way, then you should, too.

equivocation

a word, phrase, or sentence is used deliberately to confuse, deceive, or mislead. In other words, saying one

thing but meaning another.