Military Evolution from the 17th Century to WWI

Professional army (17th century)

Standing armies with structured ranks, soldiers paid and loyal to the state, replacing mercenaries and feudal loyalties.

Maurice of Nassau's Dutch reforms

"Dig, Drill, Divide" — standardized training and daily drills influencing Protestant armies.

Key figures of the 30 Years' War

Wallenstein (war-economy fusion) and Gustavus Adolphus (mobility, firepower, logistics).

Technological advances in 17th-18th century armies

Flintlock muskets, bayonets, mobile artillery (Gribeauval system), volley fire, and formation tactics.

Levée en masse

Mass conscription (1793) that mobilized entire society for war, creating citizen-soldiers driven by nationalism.

Lazare Carnot's contribution

He coordinated mass production and supply to support the large revolutionary armies.

Military tactics favored by the French Revolution

Flexible tactics and shock tactics like fast infantry charges and rapid engagements.

French army organization during the Revolution

Introduction of accurate maps, divisions of about 12,000 men, and standardized logistics and artillery.

Army Corps system introduced by Napoleon

Units of 30-36,000 soldiers with mixed arms (infantry, cavalry, artillery) for flexible and independent operations.

Key tactical strategies used by Napoleon

"Manoeuvre sur la derrière" (flanking/supply line attacks) and the central position strategy (divide and conquer).

Napoleon's improvement of artillery

Standardized artillery with the "Canon universel" and increased gun-to-soldier ratio from 2:1000 to 3.5:1000.

Napoleon's major social/legal reforms

Concordat recognizing Catholicism but separating church/state, secular education, and Code Napoleon with unified laws and meritocracy.

Naval defeats limiting Napoleon's power

Battle of the Nile (1798) and Battle of Trafalgar (1805), leading to British naval dominance.

Continental System

A blockade to cut off Britain economically, which failed due to enforcement difficulties and smuggling.

Napoleon's defeat in Spain

Nationalist resistance supported by British forces under Wellington.

Paixhans shell guns

Using explosive rounds that ended the era of wooden warships.

Early steam-powered ships

Comet (1822, British steam tug) and Sphinx (1829, French steamship used in Algeria).

Replacement of paddle wheels on ships

The screw propeller — more efficient propulsion.

First ocean-going ironclad

Gloire (France, 1859).

Significance of the Battle of Hampton Roads (1862)

First battle between ironclad warships: CSS Virginia vs USS Monitor.

New naval threats in this period

Torpedo boats armed with self-propelled torpedoes.

Defensive innovations against naval threats

Torpedo nets, searchlights, and rapid-fire guns.

Advances in naval technology (late 19th century)

Smokeless powder, nickel-steel armor, and forced-draft boilers.

Alfred Thayer Mahan's key argument about sea power

Control of the sea is essential for commerce and global dominance.

Julian Corbett's view on naval power

It must be integrated with land forces and diplomacy.

Key developments in the rise of the U.S. Navy in the late 19th century

Massive industrial growth, Panama Canal construction start (1881), Naval War College founded (1883), and becoming 5th largest navy by 1893.

Significance of the Indiana-class battleships

Approved in 1890, symbolizing the U.S. naval modernization.

Factors contributing to military professionalism

Transition from mercenaries to national standing armies with training.

Impact of industrialization on military power

Fueled revolutions in land and naval warfare through better weapons, transport, and logistics.

Link between naval power and global empire building

Control of the seas enables colonial expansion and trade dominance.

Characteristics of the military period after Napoleon until 1864

Stagnation, lost lessons from revolutionary wars, rise of modernizing Prussia.

Post-Napoleonic states' control of internal security

Through strong state policing, use of army/gendarmerie, and rotating regiments.

Comparison of French and Prussian military models in mid-19th century

France: small professional army, rejected mass conscription, tech innovation; Prussia: large citizen army with reserves, rapid railway mobilization, mission tactics.

Technological innovations emphasized by Prussia

Needle gun, railway mobilization, educated officers, mission-oriented tactics (Auftragstaktik).

Prussia's preparation for war compared to Austria

Through industrialization, nationalized railways, military reforms by Moltke (wargames, telegraphs).

Bismarck's role in Prussia's military rise

Used 'blood and iron' policy to push military modernization and German unification.

War preceding the Austro-Prussian War

The Danish War (1864).

Key Prussian advantages in the Austro-Prussian War

Needle gun, railway mobilization, mission tactics.

Key battle of the Austro-Prussian War

Battle of Königgrätz (Sadowa).

Prussian tactic used to achieve victory

Kesselschlacht — encirclement and annihilation of the enemy.

Austria's main weaknesses in the Austro-Prussian War

Ethnic divisions, poor leadership, inefficient rail and communication.

Outcomes for Austria after the Austro-Prussian War

Paid reparations and lost dominance over German states.

Key lessons Prussia learned from the Danish War

Need for speed, communication, initiative; avoid frontal assaults; surround and overwhelm the enemy.

Comparison of weapons used by Prussia and Austria

Prussians: Needle Gun (fast reload, effective in close combat). Austrians: Lorenz Rifle (greater range and accuracy, slower reload).

Impact of railways on the wars

Prussia's strategic rail network enabled fast troop movement; Austria's system was uncoordinated.

Kesselschlacht and its significance

Cauldron battle tactic; encircling and destroying the enemy, core to German doctrine.

Clausewitz's influence on Prussian military philosophy

His ideas shaped strategic thinking and military doctrine.

War as an extension of politics

Advocated total war requiring full state mobilization.

Prussia's social and organizational advantages

Unified social organization, highly trained general staff, mission-oriented tactics, effective diplomacy.

Leadership and structural issues in Austria

Last-minute appointment of Field Marshal Benedek, ethnic diversity causing coordination problems, slow mobilization.

Battle of Königgrätz

Prussian railway-enabled surprise, superior tactics, and coordination overwhelmed Austria.

Aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War

Austria paid reparations and withdrew from German Confederation; Prussia annexed states and expanded its army.

French military strengths in the Franco-Prussian War

Strengths: Chassepot rifle, mitrailleuse (early machine gun).

French military weaknesses in the Franco-Prussian War

Weaknesses: poor command, slow mobilization, weak reserves.

Prussia's victory in the Franco-Prussian War

Superior planning, logistics, officer training, and Bismarck's diplomacy isolating France.

Consequences of the Franco-Prussian War

Collapse of the Second French Empire; unification of Germany under Prussian leadership in 1871.

Key features of the Prussian military system

General Staff system, nationally integrated railways and communication, military academies and education reforms.

Role of the German General Staff by 1914

Central strategic institution with standardized planning, control, and officer training.

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte's rise to power

Elected President in 1848; gained support from peasants and Napoleonic legacy.

Establishment of the Second French Empire

Coup d'état in 1852; Napoleon III declared himself Emperor.

Supporters and opponents of Napoleon III's regime

Supported by army and peasants; opposed by students, workers, some peasants, red republicans, and liberals.

Napoleon III's domestic policies

Authoritarian disguised as progressive; universal male suffrage but state overrode referendums; expanded state subsidies; eroded democratic institutions.

Napoleon III's foreign policy goals

Rebuild Europe in Napoleonic grandeur using secret diplomacy and limited wars, especially outside Europe.

Conflict with Russia (Crimean War)

To disrupt Russia's empire and appease conservatives, republicans, and liberals with ideological support.

Napoleon III's appeasement of the Catholic Church

Sent troops to crush Italian nationalists, challenged Russian control of Jerusalem, framed mission as defending Christians in Judea.

Causes of the Crimean War

Conflict over Black Sea dominance and Ottoman territory.

Revelations about Russia during the Crimean War

Militarily weak despite large army.

Technological advantages in the Crimean War

Use of steamships, railways, and telegraphs for coordinated, advanced warfare.

Result of the Crimean War

Russia defeated; Treaty of Paris limited its naval power; modern logistics and communications became essential.

Post-1815 military issue in Europe

Stagnation with many states failing to reform tactics and technology.

Prussia's revolutionization of warfare

Through nationalism, industrialization, and education reforms.

Nationalism, industrialization, and education reforms

Factors contributing to the development of modern states.

Role of armies internally

Used to suppress domestic unrest, not just for external wars.

Impact of railways and communication on warfare

Reshaped tempo and logistics, making wars faster and more coordinated.

Legacy of the Prussian military model

Foundation for modern warfare and influence on military structures up to WWI.

Massacre of Sinope (1853)

Russian naval attack using explosive shells that sparked the Crimean War.

Russia's goals in the Crimean War

To turn Constantinople into a Russian city and dominate the Black Sea.

Reasons for Britain and France entering the Crimean War

Fear of Russian dominance over the Black Sea and strong public support.

Condition of the British Army during the Crimean War

Outdated, poorly trained, soldiers viewed as low-class, survived mainly due to worse Russian conditions.

Condition of the Russian Army during the Crimean War

Huge but poorly equipped, underfed, conscription lasted 25 years, many soldiers died of disease.

Significance of the Battle of Alma (Sept 1854)

First major battle; Russian lines broke under modern French and British firepower.

Objective of the Siege of Sebastopol

Capture a major Russian port and establish an Allied naval base.

Fame of the Battle of Balaclava (Oct 1854)

Defended key supply port; marked shift to siege warfare; known for the Charge of the Light Brigade.

Causes of high casualties during the Crimean War

Disease (typhus, pneumonia, dysentery), harsh winter, logistical failures.

Tactical innovation at the Battle of Inkerman (Nov 1854)

Discipline and rifle firepower overcame massed infantry charges.

Logistical challenges faced by the Allies during the siege

Small supply port at Balaclava and harsh winter; built a 25-mile railway for supplies.

Outcomes of the Treaty of Paris (1856)

Black Sea neutralized; Russia restricted from naval buildup; loss of influence in Balkans and Holy Land.

Influence of the Crimean War on military and public reforms

Exposed leadership failures via war correspondents; led to British military reforms; France did not reform.

Technological innovations in the Crimean War

Minié bullet, use of telegraphs, railways, steamships, photography, and war reporting.

Population and manpower difference between Union and Confederacy

Confederacy: 11 states, ~9 million people (5.5 million white), army peaked ~460,000; Union: 22 states, 22 million people, >2 million enlisted (including 179,000 Black soldiers).

Effect of conscription during the Civil War

Both sides used conscription; Union allowed wealth-based exemptions causing class tensions.

Economic challenges faced by the Confederacy

Reliance on cotton and tobacco; Northern naval blockade cut off trade; poor railway management hurt mobility and supply.

Main tactical approaches of Confederate officers

Trained in Napoleonic/Jominian tactics with emphasis on frontal assaults.

Characteristics of battles like Gettysburg and Antietam

Extremely high casualties, sometimes up to 50% loss in an hour.

Total War

A strategy focusing on the complete mobilization of resources and people, blurring the lines between civilian and military targets.

Eastern Front

The theater of the American Civil War where General Lee fought against Union forces.

Western Front

The theater of the American Civil War characterized by significant Union successes.

Confederacy Surrender

The Confederacy surrendered in April 1865, marking the end of the American Civil War.

Industrial-Scale War

A war characterized by massive manpower and casualties, exemplified by the American Civil War.

Nationalism

A political ideology that unified and mobilized citizens, as seen in Prussia.