Chapter 6: Learning: How Nature Changes Us

acquisition

learning phase during which a conditioned response is established

classical conditioning

(Pavlovian) form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response

cognitive map

mental representation of how a physical space is organized

conditioned response

(CR) response previously associated with a nonneutral stimulus that is elicited by a neutral stimulus through conditioning

conditioned stimulus

(CS) initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response as a result of association with an unconditioned stimulus

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs, resulting in faster learning but faster extinction than only occasional reinforcement

discriminative stimulus

stimulus that signals the presence of reinforcement

extinction

gradual reduction and eventual elimination of the conditioned response after the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus

fetishism

sexual attraction to nonliving things

fixed interval schedule

(FI) pattern in which we provide reinforcement for a response at least once following a specified time interval

fixed ratio schedule

(FR) pattern in which we provide reinforcement following a regular number of responses

habituation

process of responding less strongly over time to repeated stimuli

higher-order conditioning

developing a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus by virtue of its association with another conditioned stimulus

insight

grasping the underlying nature of a problem

instinctive drift

tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement

latent inhibition

difficulty in establishing classical conditioning to a conditioned stimulus we've repeatedly experienced alone, that is, without the unconditioned stimulus

latent learning

learning that's not directly observable

law of effect

principle asserting that if a stimulus followed by a behavior results in a reward, the stimulus is more likely to give rise to the behavior in the future

learning

change in an organism's behavior or thought as a result of experience

learning style

an individual's optimal method of acquiring new information

mirror neuron

cell in the prefrontal cortex that becomes activated when an animal performs an action or observes it being performed

negative reinforcement

removal of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior

observational learning

learning by watching others

operant conditioning

learning controlled by the consequences of the organism's behavior

partial reinforcement

occasional reinforcement of a behavior, resulting in slower extinction than if the behavior had been reinforced continually

positive reinforcement

presentation of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior

preparedness

evolutionary predisposition to learn some pairings of feared stimuli over others owing to their survival value

primary reinforcer

item or outcome that naturally increases the target behavior

punishment

outcome or consequence of a behavior that weakens the probability of the behavior

reinforcement

outcome or consequence of a behavior that strengthens the probability of the behavior

renewal effect

sudden reemergence of a conditioned response following extinction when an animal is returned to the environment in which the conditioned response was acquired

schedule of reinforcement

pattern of reinforcing a behavior

secondary reinforcer

neutral object that becomes associated with a primary reinforcer

shaping

conditioning a target behavior by progressively reinforcing behaviors that come closer and closer to the target

Skinner box

small nonhuman animal chamber constructed by Skinner to allow sustained periods of conditioning to be administered and behaviors to be recorded unsupervised

spontaneous recovery

sudden reemergence of an extinct conditioned response after a delay in exposure to the conditioned stimulus

stimulus discrimination

process by which organisms display a less pronounced conditioned response to conditioned stimuli that differ from the original conditioned stimulus

stimulus generalization

process by which conditioned stimuli similar, but not identical, to the original conditioned stimulus elicit a conditioned response

unconditioned response

(UCR) automatic response to a nonneutral stimulus that does not need to be learned

unconditioned stimulus

(UCS) stimulus that elicits an automatic response

variable interval schedule

(VI) pattern in which we provide reinforcement for a response at least once during an average time interval, with the interval varying randomly

variable ratio schedule

(VR) pattern in which we provide reinforcement after a specific number of responses on average, with the number varying randomly