Biology 3/4 HL - Semester 1 Final Prep

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107 Terms

1

Species

A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring

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Habitat

The environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism

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Population

A group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same time

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Community

A group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area

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Abiotic environment

All the nonliving factors and processes in an area

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Ecosystem

A community and its abiotic environment

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Ecology

The study of relationships between living organisms and other organisms and their environment

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3 essential components of a sustainable ecosystem

  • Nutrient availability

  • Detoxification of waste products

  • Energy supplied

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Mesocosm

  • They are small experimental areas that are set up as ecological experiments

  • Often they are completely sealed to test for sustainability

  • They can also be used to test the impact of removing a factor

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Autotroph

Organisms that synthesize their organic molecules from simple inorganic substances, like plants!

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Heterotroph

Organisms that obtain organic molecules from other organisms

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Consumer

Organism that ingests other organic matter that is living or recently killed.  Ex=rabbit, vulture

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Detritivore

Organism that ingests nonliving organic matter.  Ex=earthworms

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Saprotroph

An organism that lives on or in non-living organic matter, secreting digestive enzymes into it and absorbing the products of digestion. Ex. = mushroom

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Food Chain

A food chain is a linear network of links in a food web starting from producer organisms and ending at an apex predator species, detritivores, or decomposer species.

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Food Web

A diagram that shows all the feeding relationships in a community

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Trophic level

An organism’s position on the food chain

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Producer

Makes food, mostly using sunlight

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Primary consumer

Consumes producers (generally called herbivores)

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Secondary consumer

consumes primary consumers (carnivore or omnivore)

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Tertiary consumer

consumes secondary consumer

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Energy flow in ecosystems

  • Most ecosystems rely on a supply of energy from sunlight

  • Light energy is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesis

  • Chemical energy in carbon compounds flows through food chains by means of feeding

  • Energy released by respiration is used in living organisms and converted to heat

  • Heat is lost from ecosystems

  • Energy losses between trophic levels restrict the length of food chains and the biomass of higher trophic levels

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Reasons of loss for energy pyramids

  • Some organisms die before being consumed

  • Some parts of organisms are not eaten or are indigestible and gets passed out in feces

    • Hair, bone

  • Energy is released in cellular respirations and transferred out as heat

  • Energy is used for movement, making cells, etc.

  • Typically only 10-20% of energy makes it to the next level

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Create a carbon cycle

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Create an Energy Pyramid

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Draw a food web

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Components of Carbon Cycle Diagrams

  • Carbon gets detained in different “pools” in the cycle

  • “Fluxes” are transfers of carbon from one pool to another and are indicated as arrows

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Main Greenhouse Gases

  • Carbon dioxide and water vapor are the most significant greenhouse gases

  • Methane and nitrogen oxides have a smaller impact

  • Nitrogen and oxygen, the main components of the Earth’s atmosphere, are not greenhouse gases

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How do greenhouse gases cause climate change?

  • Short-wavelength radiation (peaks around 400 nm) comes in from the sun and strikes the Earth

  • Earth absorbs the light and re-emits it at a much longer peak wavelength of about 10,000 nm

  • As the longer wavelengths radiation heads back out about 70-85% is absorbed by greenhouse gases

  • Greenhouse gases re-emit the radiation in all directions, but some goes back to Earth’s surface, causing it to warm

  • More green house gases = more chance light gets rebounded back to earth

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Explain the relationship between greenhouse gases and global warming

  • Greenhouse gases have been rising since industrialization

    • ~1850

  • Temperatures have also been rising

    • Took off around 1970

  • Ten hottest years on record have occurred since 2003

  • Global temperatures have risen 1.1  degrees Celsius on average since industrialization

  • Projected to rise much more this century

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Arctic Consequences of global warming

  • Melting glaciers

    • Sea level rise

  • Polar ice sheets break up

  • Permafrost melt, more decomposition of organic matter, which increases CO2 even more

    • Positive feedback loop

  • Temperate species move North, altering food chains

  • Many arctic species go extinct due to higher temps

  • More pests and diseases

  • Extreme weather events are more frequent

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The impact of ocean acidification on coral

  • Ocean acidification slows the rate at which coral reefs generate calcium carbonate, thus slowing the growth of coral skeletons.

  • Less Biodiverse

  • Less complex

  • Effects coral skeleton

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33

Outline the binomial system of nomenclature

  • Current system of naming attributed to Carolus Linnaeus (1707 - 1778)

    • It was approved 1905 in Vienna by International Botanical Congress

  • International Congresses are held regularly to make sure that scientists use the same systems for naming organisms

  • Under the system, you name a species by listing the genus name with uppercase 1st letter followed by the species name with lowercase 1st letter

  • Italicize both word when typing and underline when writing by hand

    • Drosophila melanogaster

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The hierarchy of taxa

  • Domain

  • Kingdom

  • Phylum

  • Class

  • Order

  • Family

  • Genus

  • Species

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The 3 Domains

  • Archaea

    • Prokaryotes

    • Extremophiles

      • Halophiles, thermophiles

    • Methanogens

  • Eubacteria (“true bacteria”)

    • Most of the bacteria that we are aware of

      • E. coli

  • Eukaryota

    • Made from eukaryotic cells

    • 4 kingdoms

      • Protista

      • Fungi

      • Plante

      • Animalia

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What happens when new evidence shows that a previous taxon contains species that have evolved from different ancestral species?

Taxonomists may reclassify groups of species to better match the new evidence

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Porifera

no symmetry, no true tissues, suspension, feeders, no mouth or anus (Sponges)

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Cnidaria

 radial symmetry, tentacles, stinging cells, mouth but no anus (Jellyfish, corals, hydras, anemones)

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Platyhelminthes

bilateral symmetry, flat body, not segmented, mouth but no anus (Tapeworms, flukes, planaria)

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Annelida

bilateral symmetry, segmented, often has bristles, mouth and anus (Earthworm, leech, sandworm)

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Mollusca

Muscular foot and mantle, usually has a shell, no segmentation, bilateral symmetry, mouth and anus (Slug, clam, snail, octopus)

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Arthropoda

bilateral symmetry, exoskeleton, segmented, jointed appendages (Insects, spiders, crabs, millipedes)

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Chordata

The Vertebrates + some others

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Bony ray-finned fish (Osteichthyes)

scales, one gill slit, no limbs, fins supported by rays, external fertilization, remain in water, swim bladder for buoyancy, don’t maintain constant body temp. (Salmon, eels, seahorses, etc.)

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Amphibians

Soft moist skin permeable to gases and water, simple lungs, tetrapods, 4 legs when adult, external fertilization, larval stage in water, and adult usually on land, eggs coated in jelly (Frogs, toads, newts, salamanders)

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Reptiles

Impermeable skin covered in scales, lungs with extensive folding, 4 legs (usually), internal fertilization, cold-blooded, eggs w/ soft shells, tooth all of one type (Snakes, lizards, alligators, turtles)

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Birds (Aves)

Skin w/ feathers made of keratin, lungs with tubes and air sacs, 2 legs and 2 wings, eggs with hard shells, beak but no teeth, constant blood temp (Storks, penguins, emus, eagles, cardinals, hummingbirds)

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Mammals

Skin has follicles w/ hair made of keratin, lungs w/ alveoli, ribs, diaphragm, mostly 4 legs, give birth to live young and feed with milk from mammary gland, teeth of different types w/ living core (Elephant, lion, kangaroo, platypus, dolphin, bat, etc.)

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Bryophyta

No true roots, just rhizoids, nonvascular, low-lying (Moss, liverworts, hornworts)

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Filicinophyta

Has vascular tissue, but no pollen or seeds.  Has spores on the underside of leaves. (Ferns, horsetails)

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Coniferophyta

Has cambium, pollen in male cones, ovules in female cones, seeds produced. (Conifers, like cedar, pine trees, spruce, larch, firs)

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Angiospermophyta

Has male and female parts, seeds, fruits, flowers (All flowering plants, Including some that you don’t realize are flowering, like maple tree, wheat, etc.)

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Dichotomous Keys

  • Tools to identity species within a group

  • Species of numbered pairs of descriptions

  • One matches species and one is clearly wrong

  • Leads to another dichotomous question or an identification

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Create / Read a dichotomous Key

Learning about Dichotomous Keys - What is that?

<p><img src="https://amonettscience.weebly.com/uploads/3/0/3/9/30399861/6072530_orig.jpg" alt="Learning about Dichotomous Keys - What is that?"></p>
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Clade

A group of organisms with a common ancestor

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Cladograms

  • Cladograms show the most probable sequence of divergence

  • Computers give multiple possibilities based on the smallest number of changes

    • Of DNA or amino acid sequences

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Molecular Clocks

  • Cladograms include numbers that represent the number of differences in base pairs or amino acids

  • These numbers can be used to estimate evolutionary distance (or time) because genetic mutations occur gradually over time

  • Evolutionary distance can indicate how long ago two organisms diverged from each other (molecular clock)

  • Scientists can even estimate approximate times based on the known rates of mutations in base pairs

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Cladograms and Reclassification

  • Example of the figwort (Scrophulariaceae) family

  • Over time plants were added to this group until there were over 275 genera and 5000 species!

  • Taxonomists recently investigated this group by comparing 3 chloroplast genes

  • It was found that this group was not a true clade and it has been reorganized

  • Less than half of the original species were retained and others were put in different groups

  • Shows how cladograms can be used to rewrite classification

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Evolution

The cumulative change in heritable characteristics of a species.  Or change in allele frequency of a gene.

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Evidence for Evolution

  • Fossil records

  • Homologous structures

  • Vestigial structures

    • Tailbone + appendix

  • Selective breeding of domesticated animals

  • Comparative embryology

  • Industrial melanism

  • Geographical distribution of organisms matches concept of gradual divergence

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Darwin’s theory of natural selection

  • Adaptations make an organism suited for its environment

    • Animals don’t choose their biology - the adapted ones get chosen by nature

      • Survival of the fittest

  • Species tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support

    • Some will die so enough is needed to continue on

  • Individuals that are better-adapted tend to survive and produce more offspring

  • Those who reproduce pass on their characteristics to their offspring

  • Over time, natural selection increases the frequency of characteristics that are better adapted to the environment and decreases the frequency of less successful adaptations

  • Species need to reproduce, not just survive

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How does sexual reproduction promote variation?

  • Variation is caused by mutation, meiosis, and sexual reproduction

  • The animals that live the longest or appeal the most to a mate get chosen passing on their genes to their kids

  • Over time, natural selection increases the frequency of characteristics that are better adapted to the environment and decreases the frequency of less successful adaptations

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Antibiotic Resistance

  • Example of evolution in response to environmental change

  • Natural selection allows the resistant bacteria to survive and the non-resistant ones die

  • Resistant bacteria will reproduce and become more common in the gene pool

  • The surviving bacteria have evolved to be resistant to the antibiotic and survive in their enviroment

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Beaks of the finch

  • Example of evolution in response to environmental change

  • During droughts, food sources would disappear, and the finches with beaks that couldn’t change to the new food die and the ones that can reproduce and pass on their traits

  • Evolution can happen rapidly under extreme conditions

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Species

  • Species means “kind” or “appearance”

  • Original definition dealt with morphology (structure, appearance), fixed characteristics

  • Current biological def:  a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed and produce viable, fertile, offspring

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Problems with biological definition of species

  • Sibling species have been found

    • Seem the same but can’t interbreed

  • Some clearly different-looking species do interbreed

    • Beak of the Finch

  • Doesn’t work for organisms that reproduce asexually

    • Like bacteria

  • Doesn’t work for fossil species

    • Can’t prove ability to reproduce

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Categories of reproductive isolation / barriers between gene pools

  • Temporal: Species are separated by when they reproduce, seasonally, or daily (daytime vs. nighttime organisms)

  • Geographic: Separation by physical barrier:  mountains, rivers, islands, depths in a lake, etc

  • Behavioral: Separation by mating rituals, songs, dances, etc

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Compare allopatric and sympatric speciation

  • Sympatric: same country

  • Allopatric: Different country

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Compare convergent and divergent evolution

  • Convergent: Different origins develop similar traits

    • Analogous strucutres

  • Divergent: One species acquires enough variations in their traits that it leads to two distinct new species

    • Homologous structures

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Identify examples of directional, stabilizing, and disruptive selection

  • Patterns of natural selection

    • Stabilizing:  selective pressures work towards eliminating extremes (human birth weights and head sizes not too large not too small)

    • Disruptive:  selective pressures work towards eliminating intermediaries (large and small are both successful strategies, medium not so much)

    • Directional:  population moves towards one extreme that is better adapted (giraffe neck)

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Discuss ideas on the pace of evolution, including gradualism and punctuated equilibrium

  • Gradualism: Evolutionary changes unfold gradually and continuously over extended periods of time.

    • Matches Darwin’s original concept

  • Punctuated Equilibrium: That most species remain relatively unchanged for long periods (stasis), punctuated by brief episodes of rapid evolution.

    • Such as a drought, antibiotics, or extreme changes in the environment

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72

Distinguish, with examples, between analogous and homologous characteristics

  • Analogous structures - Common function, but different origins (convergent)

    • Bats and butterflies both fly

    • That means flying evolved multiple times

  • Homologous structures

    • Could have different function, but has common origin (divergent evolution)

      • Whales and humans have structures (hands and flippers) but they have different functions, but similar structures

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73

Annotate a diagram of the heart showing 4 chambers, associated blood vessels, valves, and route of blood through the heart.

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Coronary Arteries

They supply blood directly to the heart

  • The heart is a muscle and requires LOTS of oxygen for ATP

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Explain the action of heart in terms of collecting blood, pumping blood, and opening and closing of valves.

  • Deoxygenated blood from the body returns to the right atrium through the Vena Cava

  • Blood goes through the atrioventricular valve to the right ventricle

  • Blood is then pumped through the semilunar valve to pulmonary artery

  • Blood comes back from the pulmonary vein to the left atrium

  • Then goes through the atrioventricular to the left ventricle

  • Finally the blood is pumped through the other semilunar valve to the aorta

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Changing the Heart Rate

  • Heart rate can be increased or decreased by impulses from the medulla of the brain

  • Accelerator nerve triggered by low blood pressure, low oxygen or low pH, causes SA node to speed up heart rate

  • Vagus nerve triggered by high blood pressure, high oxygen, and high pH, causes SA node to slow down heart rate

  • Epinephrine (adrenaline) is a hormone (fight or flight) that tells SA node to speed up heart beat

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Maintaining Heart’s Rhythm

  • Heart muscle can contract on its own without signal from a nerve (it’s myogenic)

  • Sinoatrial (SA) node (called the “pacemaker”) in wall of right atrium helps keep heart muscles in sync

  • Electrical signals contract atria first, the pause .1 sec then contract ventricles

  • Right side contracts just ahead of left

  • Purkinje fibers carry impulse quickly to ventricles

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Arteries

Take blood away from the heart, thick walls, elastic, can withstand high pressures, narrower lumen than veins, pulse is felt in arteries

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Veins

Take blood back to heart, thinner walls than arteries, lower pressure and blood speed than in arteries, valves keep blood going in the right direction, skeletal muscles and gravity help keep blood flowing.

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Capillaries

  • Very thin, only have tunica intima, infiltrate all tissues, blood slows down due to branching, oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse easily across, “exchange zone”, pores between cells allow plasma and phagocytes to leak out, lumen can be very small (10 micrometers)

    • Permeability of capillary walls differs between tissues, allowing different substances to reach different tissues based on size

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Layers of blood vessels

  • Tunica externa:  tough outer layer

  • Tunica media: smooth muscle + elastic fibers (rebound in arteries to help propel blood)

  • Tunica intima: smooth endothelium forming lining

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Myogenic

  • The ability of a muscle to contract reflexively without nervous stimulation

    • Muscles that move without nerve signals

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Epinephrine (adrenaline)

A hormone (fight or flight) that tells SA node to speed up heart beat

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Atherosclerosis

The development of fatty tissues in the walls of the coronary arteries

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Risk factors of Atherosclerosis

  • High blood pressure of LDL (low density lipoprotein)

  • Chronic high blood pressure due to smoking, stress, or other cause

  • Chronic high blood glucose, due to obesity or diabetes

  • Consumption of trans fats

  • Infection of artery wall with bacteria

  • Production of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) by microbes in intestine

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Consequences of Atherosclerosis

  • Through a complex process, a mass bulges into the coronary artery and occludes (restricts) blood flow

  • Lack of oxygen in the heart causes pain (angina) and impairs contraction

  • Heart pumps faster to maintain circulation

  • Build up of tissue can rupture and stimulate blood clots

  • Blood clots can block flow further and cause tissue death in the heart (heart attack)

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Ventilation

Taking in fresh air, and getting out stale air with the purpose of keeping a gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs.

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Gas exchange in Breathing

Occurs in the alveoli.  Carbon dioxide diffuses from capillary to alveolar space and oxygen does the opposite

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Alveoli

  • Air sacs clustered at tips of smallest bronchioles

  • Add to surface area for gas exchange (100 square meters [10mx10m], 50x more than skin)

  • Very thin (1 cell thick), allows for quick gas exchange

  • Surrounded by capillaries for quick transport of gases

  • Type I pneumocytes: extremely thin alveolar cells, adapted for gas exchange, very small distance to adjacent capillaries

  • Type II pneumocytes: rounded cells that make up about 5% of alveolar surface, secrete a solution containing “surfactant” that prevents alveolar walls from sticking together. Pulmonary surfactant similar to phospholipids.  Prevents collapse of the lungs!

  • Film of moisture also allows oxygen to dissolve and diffuse to blood in capillaries and provides area from which carbon dioxide can evaporate

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90

Parts of the respiratory system

Draw a neat diagram of human respiratory system and label its following  parts:Rings of cartilage, lung, bronchi, alveolar sac

<p><img src="https://search-static.byjusweb.com/question-images/toppr_ext/questions/971462_87801_ans_20c3d0abbe4541f280c443db0bb67f63.jpg" alt="Draw a neat diagram of human respiratory system and label its following  parts:Rings of cartilage, lung, bronchi, alveolar sac"></p>
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91

Describe the process of negative pressure breathing

  • Mammals take in air through negative pressure breathing

  • Gas flows from high to low pressure

  • Diaphragm (sheet of muscle at bottom of thoracic cavity) contracts, which lowers cavity and external intercostal muscles contract, which raises the rib cage

  • Both actions increase the volume of the lungs, so pressure goes down, and this negative pressure causes air to be pushed in from the outside (inspiration)

  • When enough air has been inhaled to equal atmospheric pressure, the reverse occurs:

    • Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax, abdominal and internal intercostal muscles contract

    • Volume of lungs decrease, pressure increases, and the air is pushed out to lower pressure (expiration)

  • Inhaling is active (diaphragm contracts) and exhaling is passive (diaphragm relaxes)

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Causes lung cancer and emphysema

  • Smoking (87%).  Increases with number of cigarettes smoked per day and years smoking

  • Passive smoking by non-smokers (3%)

  • Air pollution (5%)

  • Radon gas

  • Asbestos, silica, and other solids if inhaled as dust

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Consequences of lung cancer

  • Difficulty breathing

  • Persistent coughing and coughing up blood

  • Chest pain

  • Loss of appetite/weight loss

  • General fatigue

  • Only 15% of patients with lung cancer survive for more than 5 years

  • Tumor often large at diagnosis and maybe has metastasized to other parts of the body

  • If caught early enough, part or all of affected lung can be removed, followed by chemotherapy or radiotherapy

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Consequences of emphysema

  • In emphysema, the many small thin-walled normal alveoli are broken down to become fewer and thicker walled alveoli

  • Thus, less surface area, longer distance for gases to diffuse, and less elasticity in lungs makes for less efficient gas exchange

  • Phagocytes in lungs normally prevent lung infections by engulfing bacteria and by making an enzyme called elastase that kills the bacteria

  • Enzyme inhibitor called alpha-1-antitrypsin (A1AT) usually keeps elastase from digesting healthy lung tissue

  • But, smokers need more phagocytes, which make more elastase

  • About 30% of smokers can’t prevent digestion of alveolar walls by elastase and the walls become weak and eventually destroyed

  • Usually irreversible

  • Causes low oxygen saturation in blood and loss of energy

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95

label parts of the human digestive system

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4 Stages of Food Processing

  • Ingestion (Through oral cavity)

  • Digestion: Breaking down macromolecules into smaller molecules, mechanical (chewing), chemical (enzymatic hydrolysis.

  • Absorption: Occurs mostly in the small intestine. Smaller molecules absorbed into bloodstream

  • Elimination (as feces, stored in rectum and eliminated through anus).  Also called “egestion”

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Extracellular Food Processing

  • Food breakdown and absorption occur in compartments that are continuous with outside of organism

  • Gastrovascular cavity: Food enters + waste exits through a single opening

    • Cnidarians (ex. Hydras) have this

  • Complete digestive tract (alimentary canal):  tube goes all the way through, food goes in one direction

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Pre stomach digestion

  • Oral Cavity (mouth): Mechanical digestion (chewing) breaks food into smaller pieces

  • Salivary glands secrete amylase, which breaks starch into disaccharide, maltose

  • Tongue helps shape the food into bolus

  • Food goes into pharynx, epiglottis covers trachea to prevent food going into windpipe

  • Food enters esophagus, peristalsis of smooth muscles pushes it down

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Stomach digestion

  • Sphincter muscle at top of stomach lets bolus in

  • Gastric juices (Hydrochloric acid, pepsin, water, mucus) released in stomach

  • Ph is low (1-2), low pH kills harmful bacteria and helps break down food

  • Stomach churns regularly, turning food mixture into “chyme”

  • Pepsin (protease) secreted into stomach, though not directly

  • Pepsin breaks proteins into smaller polypeptides

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Small intestine Digestion

  • Acidic chyme enters 1st part of small intestine (duodenum), through sphincter muscle a squirt at a time

  • Bile and pancreatic enzymes and bicarbonate (a base) are added

  • Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder

  • Bile is an alkaline detergent that emulsifies fats (coats and breaks into small globules)

  • Pancreatic amylase, proteases, lipase, phospholipase

  • More enzymes are produced by glands in the intestinal wall:  nucleases, maltase, lactase, sucrase, exopeptidases, dipeptidases

  • Majority of digestion occurs in the first part of the small intestine (the duodenum)

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