Studied by 110 peoplecognition
the activity of knowing & processing, through which knowledge is acquired
flexible question-answer techniques, standardization
piaget's clinical method involved _____ rather than _____
schema
an organized way of thinking or acting that allows us to interpret our experiences
example of a behaviorist schema
grasping a block or a bottle of milk
example of a symbolic schema
creating a mental model of a horse or bear
adaptation
adjusting to the demands of one’s environment
assimilation
interpreting new experiences in terms of already existing schema. (Ex: the first time a child sees a plane, they assume it is a large, loud bird)
accommodation
the process of modifying existing schema to better fit new experiences (Ex: the first time a child sees a lamb, they assume its a dog and are corrected; they now have to modify what they know of as a dog and introduce the schema of a lamb)
disequilibrium
cognitive conflict, which a person attempts to resolve through, for example, accommodation
sensory-motor stage
piaget's first stage of intellectual development (0-18 months)
reflex activity substage
birth-1 month old, involves exercising inborn reflexes
primary circular reactions substage
1-4 months, interesting acts on the child’s own body are repeated
secondary circular reactions substage
4-8 months, repetition of interesting acts on objects
coordination of secondary schemes substage
8-12 months, in which there is a combination of acts to solve a problem/achieve a goal
tertiary circular reactions substage
12-18 months, an infant finds new ways to solve problems or produce interesting results
beginning of thought substage
18-24 months first evidence of insight & ability to solve a problem mentally using symbols to stand for objects
object permanence
a concept in which children realize that things don’t necessarily cease to exist just because they can no longer be detected by the five senses. this ability implies that the child can retain a mental image.
example of object permanence
a child cries and reaches for a favorite toy they were playing with after it had been put inside a toy box
18 months
piaget believed that object permanence was grasped at age _____, but recent evidence shows that it develops earlier than he thought.
example of tertiary reactions
a child stuffing cereal in the mouth, then the ears, then the hair, then the floor, and is experimenting to find new solutions to problems
example of beginning of thought
a child is not allowed to play with dad’s ring of keys, but they discover that they can “pretend” that a ring of metal tabs are the car keys. they are using a symbol to stand in for the actual car keys
preoperational stage
piaget's second stage of development, occurring from age 2-7, titled as such because, supposedly, logical thinking does not yet exist in this stage; is coupled with increased symbolic capacity and language usage.
earlier
logical thinking actually occurs _____ than piaget thought
egocentrism
a key feature of the preoperational stage, involves the inability to take another person’s point of view (quite literally so)
example of egocentrism
a child holding up their fingers to mime how old they are when asked how old they are over the phone, believing that, since they can see their fingers, the person on the other line must be able to as well
animism
an example of illogical thinking during the preoperational stage, involves attributing human qualities to non-human entities
example of animism
thinking that clouds move by walking through the sky on their legs, because they get bored staying where they are
lack of ability to conserve
an illogical feature of the preoperational stage involving a child’s notion that all aspects of things change once there is a change in some superficial appearance of an object, the idea that once something has changed, it is impossible to change it back
reversibility
the process of mentally undoing an action
concrete operations stage
piaget's third stage of development (ages 7-12) in which a child is noticeably less egocentric, can understand conservation, and is capable of utilizing reversibility; the way the world appears physically is something that the child can imagine readily and is capable of understanding
seriation
the ability to order things from smallest to largest, shortest to tallest, lightest to darkest, etc., a feature of the concrete operations stage
formal operational stage
piaget's fourth stage of development (entered at age 12), differentiated from the concrete operational stage in that these thinkers can think about and imagine hypotheticals and possibilities and engage in hypothetical deductive thinking
example of hypothetical deductive thinking
a teacher asks their class what would happen if gravity didn’t exist, and a student answers that they would have to redesign classrooms with desks on the ceiling; the child can invent ideas that are contrary to actual facts
generating all possible hypotheses
the first step in hypothetical deductive thinking
more likely to rebel against the inconsistencies they are able to detect in the world
one implication of formal operational thought is that adolescents are _____than children are.
imaginary audience
the teen feels as though they are on display, much like an actor on a stage (ex: spilling water on your pants and refusing to go to class because people might stare at you)
personal fable
a story the teen tells themselves about themselves that is not inherently true (“no one could experience the heartache that I have had since I broke up with my partner”; “I will never die”). this can cause teens to take unnecessary risks
post-formal thinking
goes beyond Piaget and beyond formal operations., involving a consideration of relativistic thinking
absolutist thinking
involves the notion that there is only one right answer to a question (one truth)
relativistic thinking
assumes that there may be a number of answers to a given question
absolutist, relativistic
perry found that many students tended to be _____ in their thinking when they first entered college, but grew to be _____ thinkers by the end of college
characteristics of post-formal thinking
understanding that knowledge is relative, accepting that the world is full of contradictions, and integrating contradictions into a much larger understanding
do not
older adults (65+) _____ perform as well as younger adults on formal operational tasks
describing, explaining
piaget’s theory does a nice job of _____ development, but it does a poor job of _____ it.
sociocultural theories
suggest that in order to help students learn, teachers should make learning a cooperative activity among peers
scaffolding
involves the guided assistance that a skilled individual provides to a less skilled person; as the student’s performance improves, the teacher or parent provides less and less assistance
private speech
what we say to ourselves under our breath, suggested by vygotsky to be a sign of cognitive maturing
example of private speech
4-year-old jackie mutters to herself the order of blocks as she stacks them while playing
charles spearman’s formula for intelligence
g + s; "g" referring to general intelligence, "s" referring to specific types of intelligence (reading comprehension, arithmetic, spatial ability, etc.)
fluid intelligence
reflects skills that are not learned or taught in school/life, but are innate (inborn) intellectual capacity
examples of fluid intelligence
visual-spatial skills, inductive reasoning (reasoning from the particular to the general), verbal nonsense memory
crystalized intelligence
reflects skills that are learned in school and through the process of living
examples of crystalized intelligence
vocabulary, reading comprehension, & general information
decreases, increasing
as fluid intelligence _____, crystallized intelligence is _____
gardner’s theory of intelligence
reflects the notion that no single IQ score can meaningfully assess intelligence
interpersonal intelligence
exceptional sensitivity to others’ motivations and moods
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
use of one’s body to create or perform things, like athletics and dance
spatial intelligence
the ability to visually understand and interpret things in 2 and 3 dimensions, as is evident in the work of architects who visually and mentally transform structures and buildings
speed of habituation score
best reflector of later intelligence from infancy; intelligent infants are ones that tend to get bored with familiar material more quickly (and thus seek out more novel information)
cumulative deficit hypothesis
used to explain how the negative effects of an impoverished environment snowball over time to create lower and lower IQ scores as a child gets older
early intervention programs
tend to result in IQ gains to some extent, but these gains tend to fade as the program ends
terminal drop
a rapid decline in elderly peoples’ intellectual abilities a few months/years prior to their death
culture fair test
a test that includes questions that are equally familiar or unfamiliar to kids from all cultures. few tests meet this standard, and there are no culture-free tests
terman’s longitudinal study of gifted children
indicated that children with IQs of 130 and above are (generally) well adjusted, mentally mature, happy, healthy, & productive
advanced language
one primary way that gifted children stand out is through their _____ skills
information processing perspective
sees changes in adolescents’ cognitive abilities as evidence of gradual transformations in the capacity to change, to use, and to store information
risk factors that have a negative impact on a child’s IQ score
a father being absent from the family, having a mother with poor mental health, and the head of the household being unemployed
creativity
the ability to produce novel responses that are valued by others, involving the production of ideas that are original and meaningful
convergent thinking
involves tasks with one correct answer
example of convergent thinking
how much is 5+3
divergent thinking
involves tasks where a variety of answers to one question are possible
ideational fluency
involves the ability to generate many interesting new ideas
rarely
research on intelligence and creativity has shown that highly creative people _____ have below-average IQs
childhood adversity
many early studies suggested that _____ was the driving force behind childhood creativity, as children may use fantasy play as a form of escapism
methods to foster creativity
allowing a child the freedom to explore their environment, allowing them to experiment, and encouraging nonconformity (NOT warmness and closeness between parent and child).
simon & bennet's IQ test
developed in france in order to be able to identify kids who were too “dull” intellectually to be able to benefit from the regular school system/curriculum, places children on a “bell curve” of scores
looking-glass self
our understanding of self being a reflection of how others respond to us; a reflective appraisal of others’ views of us
"big five" traits of personality
Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN)
self-recognition
the act of an infant recognizing themselves and their appearance in a reflection/photograph, developed at around age 18 months; most newborns have no sense of self
categorical self
involves classifying oneself into different social categories, the first of which are usually age and gender
temperament
a genetically based tendency to respond in a predictable way that is first seen in early infancy; can sometimes be shaped by environment
easy temperament
characterized by happiness and openness to new experiences, summarizing the majority of children
difficult temperament
involves high irritability and negative reactions to change
slow-to-warm-up temperament
involves a child who is relatively inactive and has mild reactions to changes in routine
behavioral inhibition
defines children who are high in neuroticism and low in extroversion; even though it's biologically rooted, it can change throughout the course of a person’s lifetime depending on their upbringing and experiences
surgency
the tendency to actively approach a new situation in a positive way
negative affectivity
a person who tends to be irritable, fearful, sad, and easily frustrated
self-concept of preschoolers
based on physical traits like size rather than psychological ones
self-description of those 8 and up
focuses more on social qualities, such as generosity
social comparison
increases as a child begins second or third grade. by this stage, kids realize that some other kids are better than they are at certain things
self-conception/social-comparison of preschoolers
tend to see themselves as the greatest at doing things. as such, they tend to be devastated if they are outdone by others, especially a member of the opposite sex. they also tend to be very poor at making comparisons between their skill level and that of their peers
harter’s self-perception research with older children
indicated that self-esteem is multidimensional, consisting of several dimensions, which may include scholastic ability, social acceptance and popularity, behavioral conduct, athletic competence, physical appearance, etc.
ideal self
represents positive things that we wish were true of ourselves (wanting to be smarter, less fearful, etc.)
8
personality tends to fully "gel" around age _____
diffusion identity status (diffusion status)
having no conflict, no crisis, and “no clue” about future plans; the person has no idea what they want to be as an “adult” and could not care less, even about exploring possibilities. parents tend to be neglectful or rejecting of those in this status.
foreclosure identity status (foreclosure status)
having put little thought into the future, but forming one’s opinions based on those around them (especially their parents/caretakers). while there is commitment, the person has no goals of their own, and only works off of the goals that others have laid out for them. there is no crisis because the decision has already been made by someone else; parents of these individuals tend to be rather autocratic and authoritarian
moratorium identity status (moratorium status)
a very active exploration of options without a firm commitment yet. often involves a lot of crisis because the person doesn’t yet know which choice to make. it is a “time out” where the person is relatively free from long-term commitments; there is time to actively explore different options.
identity achievement status
the search is over; a person has made a firm commitment to one option among several. the rate of this can differ across domains of identity (other than career, these domains include religious commitment, political affiliation, romantic life, etc.)
negative identity
identification with all those behaviors and roles that are seen as negative and wrong by those in positions of authority, such as parents and society at large
ideal-real self gap
older people may retain a high sense of self-image by reducing the ____
Note
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