Unit 2 AP Gov vocab

advice and consent

U.S. Senate's constitutional power to approve or reject treaties and confirm or reject presidential appointments

bicameral

a lawmaking body with two separate chambers, specifically the United States Congress, which consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate

caucuses

a meeting of party members to select candidates for office, most notably for presidential nominations

coalition

a temporary alliance of two or more political parties, groups, or individuals who unite to achieve a common goal

enumerated powers

the specific powers of the federal government that are explicitly listed in the U.S. Constitution

implied powers

governmental authorities not explicitly listed in the Constitution but are understood to be necessary to carry out the enumerated powers, primarily derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause

house of representatives

the lower chamber of the U.S. Congress where representation is based on population, with a total of 435 voting members. Its members are elected to two-year terms and their job is to make and pass federal laws.

necessary and proper (or elastic) clause

grants Congress the power to make laws "necessary and proper" for carrying out its other powers

power of the purse ()

allows Congress to influence policy and check the executive branch by approving or denying funding for programs and initiatives proposed by the President

senate

the upper house of the U.S. Congress, representing states equally with two senators per state, serving six-year staggered terms. It shares legislative power with the House of Representatives but has unique powers, such as confirming presidential appointments, ratifying treaties, and trying impeachments

Seventeenth amendment (1913)

established the direct election of U.S. Senators by popular vote rather than being chosen by state legislatures

war powers act (1973)

a federal law designed to limit the president's ability to commit U.S. armed forces to conflicts without congressional approval. It requires the president to consult with Congress before deploying troops, notify Congress within 48 hours of deployment, and cease military action within 60 days unless Congress declares war or grants an extension

cloture rule

a procedure in the U.S. Senate that allows a super-majority vote to end a filibuster (60/100)

committee of the whole

a parliamentary device where all members of the House of Representatives form a committee to consider bills and other measures in a less formal setting

conference committee

a temporary joint committee formed by members of both the House and Senate to resolve differences between two versions of a bill that each chamber has passed

deficit

the shortfall that occurs when a government's spending (expenditures) exceeds its income (revenues) in a given fiscal year

discharge petitions

allows members to force a bill out of committee and onto the floor for a vote. It requires the signatures of an absolute majority of the House—218 members—to succeed

discretionary spending

government expenditures that are not mandated by existing laws and are subject to an annual congressional appropriations process, allowing Congress to decide the funding levels each year

filibuster

a legislative tactic in the U.S. Senate where a senator or a group of senators prolongs debate to delay or block a vote on a bill or other matter

germane

relevant to the subject matter of the bill or motion being amended (house of representation)

hold

an informal practice in the U.S. Senate where a senator signals their objection to a bill, resolution, or presidential nomination, temporarily blocking its consideration or passage

joint committee

a legislative committee composed of members from both the House of Representatives and the Senate, created to address specific issues or provide administrative coordination between the two chambers

logrolling

a political practice in which legislators trade votes to pass bills, where each member agrees to support another member's legislation in exchange for the other's support on their own bill

mandatory spending

government spending on certain programs that is required by existing law, rather than being set annually through the appropriations process

omnibus bill

a single, large legislative document that combines multiple, separate, and often unrelated bills into one

pork-barrel spending

the allocation of government funds to a member of Congress's home district or state for a project that primarily benefits that local area, often to secure political favor

president of the senate

the Vice President of the United States, who presides over Senate sessions and votes only to break a tie

president pro tempore

the senator who presides over the Senate in the absence of the Vice President. The role is established by the Constitution and is typically held by the most senior senator of the majority party

rider

an additional, often unrelated, provision attached to a legislative bill to help it pass or to attach controversial policy (pork-barrel spending)

rules committee

a powerful standing committee in the House of Representatives that determines the rules for debate and the process for bringing a bill to the floor, often referred to as the "traffic cop" of the House

select committee

a temporary, special committee created to investigate a specific issue that is outside the scope of regular, permanent standing committees

senate majority leader

the most powerful member of the Senate, leading the majority party to control the chamber's agenda, set the legislative schedule, and act as the party's chief spokesperson. They are elected by the majority party's caucus

speaker of the house

the presiding officer and leader of the majority party in the House of Representatives, responsible for legislative agenda, committee appointments, and maintaining order. They are elected by the House at the start of each Congress and are second in the line of presidential succession

sponser

the member of Congress who formally introduces a bill or resolution to the legislative chamber

unanimous consent

approval of all senators

ways and means committee

the oldest standing committee in the House of Representatives and is one of the most powerful because it is the primary tax-writing committee, with jurisdiction over all revenue bills, including taxes, tariffs, and trade

whip

a party official in Congress responsible for ensuring party discipline by securing votes and maintaining unity

Baker v. Carr (1962)

ruled federal courts can hear lawsuits challenging state legislative apportionment based on the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. It established that legislative districting is a "justiciable" issue, meaning courts can rule on it, and laid the groundwork for the "one person, one vote" principle by holding that unequal representation due to population shifts is unconstitutional

delegate model

when a member of Congress acts as a direct mouthpiece for their constituents, voting according to the will of the majority of people they represent, even if it contradicts their own personal beliefs

gerrymandering

the practice of drawing electoral district boundaries to manipulate voting outcomes and give one political party an unfair advantage

gridlock

a political stalemate where a government cannot pass laws or make decisions due to a lack of compromise, often caused by party polarization or divided government

“lame duck“ president

an outgoing president who is in the final period of their term after a successor has been elected, but before the new president's inauguration

“one person - one vote“ principle

the principle that every citizen's vote should have equal weight in elections (Baker v. Carr)

politico model

a hybrid of the delegate and trustee models of representation, where a representative acts as a delegate when their constituents care strongly about an issue and as a trustee when they do not, using their own judgment

racial gerrymandering

the practice of drawing legislative district lines to favor or disfavor a racial group

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

ruled race-based redistricting must be subjected to strict scrutiny and can violate the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause if a district is drawn in an unusually bizarre way to segregate voters by race

swing district

a congressional or electoral district with a close balance between voters of different political parties, making it competitive in elections

trustee model

elected officials use their own judgment and conscience to make decisions, believing they are acting in the best long-term interest of their constituents and the nation, even if it goes against popular opinion

bargaining and persuasion

informal tools a president uses to influence Congress to pass their legislative agenda

commander in chief

the President of the United States' formal title as the head of the armed forces, granting them the authority to oversee military operations, deploy troops, and make strategic decisions to ensure the nation's security

formal powers

the explicit authorities granted to an office by a constitution or law

executive agreement

a formal international agreement made between the U.S. President and the head of another government, which does not require Senate ratification like a treaty does

executive order

a directive from the President that has the force of law, used to manage the federal government and direct the bureaucracy. It is an informal presidential power

executive privilege

the implied presidential power to withhold confidential information from Congress and the courts

informal powers

the political abilities a president or governor uses to achieve their policy goals that are not explicitly granted in the Constitution or law

line-item veto

a specific type of veto power that allows the president (or a governor) to reject individual provisions, typically spending items, within a bill without vetoing the entire bill (UNCONSTITUTIONAL)

pocket veto

A special type of veto used by a President (or governor) to kill a bill by inaction. It occurs when the President receives a bill and Congress adjourns within the 10-day period, and the President simply does not sign it, allowing the bill to die automatically

policy agenda

the list of issues and problems that policymakers prioritize for discussion and action

signing statements

a written pronouncement issued by a president when signing a bill into law. It can include the president's interpretation of the law, objections to certain provisions, and their intent on how the executive branch will implement it

veto

the power of the president to reject a bill passed by Congress, preventing it from becoming law

ambassador

the highest-ranking diplomatic representative of one country, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate to a foreign nation

cabinet

is the group of presidential advisors that includes the Vice President and the heads of the 15 executive departments. The President appoints these individuals, but they must be confirmed by the Senate. 

chief of staff

the person who directs the White House Office and advises the President. (DOES NOT NEED APPROVAL FROM THE SENATE)

inherent powers

those not explicitly listed in the Constitution but are considered necessary for the national government to function and carry out its duties

joint chief of staff

the group of senior military leaders in the Department of Defense who serve as the principal military advisors to the President, the Secretary of Defense, the Homeland Security Council, and the National Security Council

Federalist No. 70

argues for a single, strong executive leader (a unitary executive) to ensure effective governance

imperial presidency

a presidency that has expanded its powers beyond its constitutional limits, often through a lack of checks and balances from Congress and the judiciary

stewardship theory

a presidential philosophy where the president acts as a "steward of the people," believing they have a duty to do whatever is necessary for the nation's good, unless the Constitution explicitly prohibits it

22nd amendment (1951)

limits U.S. presidents to a maximum of two elected terms in office

bully pulpit

the president's ability to use the visibility and prestige of the office to advocate for a policy agenda and influence public opinion

state of the Union Address

the annual speech by the U.S. president to Congress to fulfill the constitutional mandate to "give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient"

appellate jurisdiction

the power of a court to review decisions made by lower courts, not to hear a case for the first time

attorney general

the head of the Department of Justice and the federal government's chief law enforcement officer

certiorari

a writ, or a legal order, from a higher court to a lower court to send up a case record for review

federalist No. 78

an essay by Alexander Hamilton arguing for the necessity of an independent judiciary, including the power of judicial review, as a key component of the American government. Hamilton championed life tenure for judges to shield them from political pressure, establishing the judiciary as a check on the other branches by allowing courts to declare laws unconstitutional if they conflict with the Constitution

judicial review

the power of a court, particularly the Supreme Court, to declare a law or government action unconstitutional if it conflicts with the U.S. Constitution

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

established the principle of judicial review. This ruling cemented the judiciary's role as an equal branch of government, strengthening the system of checks and balances by giving the Supreme Court the authority to act as the final arbiter of constitutional meaning

original jurisdiction

a court's authority to hear a case for the first time

U.S. District Courts

the federal trial courts of original jurisdiction, meaning they are the courts where most federal cases begin. They are the first level of the federal court system, responsible for conducting trials for both federal criminal and civil cases, and resolving disputes by determining the facts and applying the law to those facts. 

U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals

the intermediate appellate courts in the federal judiciary system, tasked with reviewing decisions from the federal district courts within their respective geographic circuits to determine if the law was applied correctly

U.S. Supreme Courts (SCOTUS)

the highest court in the federal judiciary, established by Article III of the Constitution to have ultimate authority in interpreting the Constitution and federal law

binding precedent

a legal principle from a previous court decision that a lower court must follow in a case with similar facts

persuasive precedent

a legal decision from a lower court, another jurisdiction, or even dicta from a higher court that a judge can consider but is not obligated to follow

precedent

a court decision that serves as an authoritative example or rule for deciding future cases with similar facts and legal issues

stare decisis

the legal doctrine that courts should follow established precedents—past court decisions—when deciding new cases with similar facts

Chief Justice John Roberts

the 17th and current Chief Justice of the United States. He has a role as a key figure in the federal judiciary, his judicial philosophy, and his significant role in upholding the institution and the rule of law

concurring opinion

a written opinion from a judge or justice who agrees with the majority's final decision in a case but disagrees with the reasoning or legal rationale used to reach that decision

dissenting opinion

a written opinion by a judge who disagrees with the majority decision in a legal case, explaining their reasoning

liberal constructionist

someone who believes the Constitution should be interpreted broadly to allow the federal government to adapt to changing times

majority opinion

the judicial opinion of a court, like the Supreme Court, that is agreed to by more than half of the judges and states the official ruling and the legal reasoning behind it

petition for certiorari

a formal request for the Supreme Court to review a lower court's decision

rule of four

an informal Supreme Court practice that requires at least four of the nine justices to agree to grant a writ of certiorari and hear a case

strict constructionist

interprets the Constitution narrowly, focusing on its literal text and the original intent of the framers to limit federal government power

Robert Bork

high-profile 1987 Supreme Court nomination that was rejected by the Senate due to his conservative judicial philosophy, which included originalism and a more restrictive view of civil rights and federal regulatory power. 

Merrick Garland

the former Attorney General who heads the Department of Justice, representing the federal government in legal matters and serving as the nation's chief law enforcement officer. His tenure is also relevant to discussions of judicial philosophy and the separation of powers, particularly concerning his nomination to the Supreme Court and his stated independence from political pressure as Attorney General

judicial activism

a judicial philosophy where judges are willing to overturn precedents and laws, taking an active role in creating new legal precedents, shaping public policy, and courts are seen as a tool to address social issues and protect individual rights

judicial restraint

a judicial philosophy where judges limit their own power by deferring to the decisions of the legislative and executive branches and adhering closely to precedent, or stare decisis

“nuclear option“

a Senate procedural tactic that allows the majority party to overcome a filibuster by changing the rules with a simple majority vote, rather than the usual 60-vote supermajority

senatorial courtesy

a long-standing political tradition in the United States whereby senators defer to the preferences of their colleagues when it comes to judicial nominations within their home states

standing

the legal right to bring a lawsuit, requiring a party to demonstrate a sufficient connection to and harm from the law or action challenged