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Correlational studies
Looks at the relationship between two qualities or elements
Observations
Researches watch the actions of participants in order to record target behaviors
Case studies
Close observation of a specific person who has experienced a psychologically significant event
Interview
Researcher sits down with a participant and asks them questions about the topic being researched
Focus groups
Particular type of interview in which a group of participants with a specific quality in common are questioned
Questionnaires/surveys
Functions same as interviews but allow for larger samples
Undue stress
Higher level of stress that an individual may experience on a day to day basis
Informed consent
Participants knowing what it is they're agreeing to in the experiment as well as what rights they have
Deception
when a researcher gives false information to subjects or intentionally misleads them about some key aspect of the research
Debriefing
Explain all parts and aims and purpose of the experiment
Right to withdraw
Participants can remove themselves from the study at any time
Confidentiality
Keeping participants info secret
Reliability
The likelihood that the study could be replicated (done again) by other researchers, and the same result could be achieved.
Validity
The idea that the results of the study are trustworthy, unbiased, and can be applied to the target population.
Extraneous/Confounding Variable
A variable that influences the results of an experiment.
Internal Validity
The trustworthiness of a study based on the procedural steps put in place by the researcher. A study with confounding variables lacks internal validity.
Construct validity
To investigate if the measure really is measuring the theoretical construct it is supposed to be.
External validity
Is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people.
Population validity
Whether you can reasonably generalize the findings from your sample to a larger group of people.
Ecological validity
A measure of how test performance predicts behaviors in real-world settings.
Demand characteristics
Created when the participant believes s/he knows the goal of a study, and (often subconsciously) changes his/her responses as a result.
Participant bias
The tendency of participants in an experiment to consciously or subconsciously act in a way that they think the researcher wants them to act.
Expectancy effect
When a participant acts a certain way because he wants to do what the researcher asks.
"Screw you" effect
Occurs when a participant attempts to figure out the researcher's hypothesis, but only in order to destroy the credibility of the study.
Social desirability effect
When participants react in a certain way because they feel that this is the "socially acceptable" thing to do - and they know that they are being observed.
Order effects
Changes in participants' responses that result from the order (eg. first, second, third) in which the experimental conditions are presented to them.
Fatigue effect
Occurs when participants are asked to take part in several conditions of the same experiment, they may get tired or bored. In either case, they may lose motivation to try their best or their concentration may be impaired, influencing the results.
Interference effects
Exist when the fact that someone has taken part in one condition affects his/her ability to take part in the next condition
Practice effect
When participants are asked to do a task repeatedly, improvement of results may be seen.
Researcher bias
When the beliefs or opinions of the researcher influence the outcomes or conclusions of the research.
Confirmation bias
When a researcher searches for or interprets information in a way that confirms a pre-existing belief or hypothesis.
Funding bias
When a researcher is compelled to find a specific result because of who their research is supported by
Publication bias
When researcher/funder only publishes chosen information
Double-blind control
When both researcher and participant are ignorant
Psychology
Systematic study of behavior and mental processes in individuals
Behavior
Actions that can be externally observed
Mental processes
Complex internal cognition (conscious or unconscious)
Why do psychologists study behavior and cognition? Why not just one or the other
Because they're interconnected
Systematic study
Is methodical. It follows specific guidelines or patterns)
Anecdotal Evidence
Evidence that's been observed by someone and is more of a personal statement
Empirical Evidence
Evidence that's been gathered using the scientific method
Quantitative Methods
Research methods that focus on objective measurements and numerical analysis of data
Experiments
Research methods where variables are manipulated to observe the effect on another variable.
Correlational studies
Research methods used to determine the relationship between two or more variables.
Twin studies
Research that compares the similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins to understand genetic and environmental influences.
Qualitative Methods
Research methods that focus on exploring and understanding underlying meanings, patterns, and subjective interpretations.
Case studies
In-depth investigations of a single person, group, or event to explore causes, effects, or dynamics.
Interviews
A research method involving direct questioning of participants about their experiences, opinions, or behaviors.
Surveys/Questionnaires
Research tools used to collect data from a large number of respondents through written questions.
Experimentation
A research method where one or more variables are manipulated to determine their effect on an outcome variable, often conducted in controlled settings
Variables
Elements or factors that can change or vary in research studies.
Independent variable
The variable that is manipulated or categorized to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
Dependent variable
The variable that is measured or observed to see if it is affected by the independent variable.
Standardized procedure
A consistent method or protocol used in research to ensure that all participants are treated in the same way.
Thoughtful sampling
The process of selecting participants for a study in a way that ensures the sample is representative and addresses the research question effectively.
Operationalize
To provide a clear explanation of how variables are interpreted
Laboratory Experiments
conducted under highly- controlled conditions
Field Experiments
conducted in a natural environment, allowing for less control over variables
True Experiment
IV is manipulated and DV is measured under controlled settings; sample is randomly allocated to conditions
Natural Experiments
No IV is manipulated. The IV is naturally occuring and then the effects (DV) are measured.
Quasi Experiments
The IV is not manipulated by the researcher, but instead determined based on the participants' characteristics
Control
Making specific choices in an attempt to prevent extraneous variables from affecting the DV.
Participant
An individual who takes part in the experiment (or a different type of research study)
Confounding Variable
An element that is not being tested, but that can affect the DV if not controlled by the researcher
Aim
identifies the purpose of the research.
Hypothesis
should predict the impact the IV will have on the DV, while also clarifying how you will manipulate the IV.
Null Hypothesis
should state that there is no significant relationship between the IV and the DV.
Independent measures
are used when the researcher tests the different conditions of the experiment with separate groups of people.
Repeated measures
are used when the researcher tests the different conditions of the experiment within the same group of participants.
Matched pairs design
is used when the researcher tests the different conditions of the experiment on different groups of participants, but s/he ensures that the key characteristics of the participants in each group are the same.
Sample
a group of people whom a researcher tests for a particular study.
Target population
is the group that a researcher is attempting to represent with his/her study.
Self-selected sampling
occurs when participants volunteer to be a part of the study.
Opportunity sampling
occurs when the researcher uses a group of people who happen to be available.
Random sampling
occurs when the research gathers a group of applicable candidates but then randomly chooses participants from that group.
Purposive sampling
is looking for people with a very specific set of traits. This is often accomplished by a self-selected sample.
Snowball sampling
is another type of purposive sampling, is used when you are looking for participants from a specific group which would not respond to an ad in a paper.
Stratified sampling
attempts to make a sample that reflects the sub-groups within a target population.