Big psych

Correlational studies

Looks at the relationship between two qualities or elements

Observations

Researches watch the actions of participants in order to record target behaviors

Case studies

Close observation of a specific person who has experienced a psychologically significant event

Interview

Researcher sits down with a participant and asks them questions about the topic being researched

Focus groups

Particular type of interview in which a group of participants with a specific quality in common are questioned

Questionnaires/surveys

Functions same as interviews but allow for larger samples

Undue stress

Higher level of stress that an individual may experience on a day to day basis

Informed consent

Participants knowing what it is they're agreeing to in the experiment as well as what rights they have

Deception

when a researcher gives false information to subjects or intentionally misleads them about some key aspect of the research

Debriefing

Explain all parts and aims and purpose of the experiment

Right to withdraw

Participants can remove themselves from the study at any time

Confidentiality

Keeping participants info secret

Reliability

The likelihood that the study could be replicated (done again) by other researchers, and the same result could be achieved.

Validity

The idea that the results of the study are trustworthy, unbiased, and can be applied to the target population.

Extraneous/Confounding Variable

A variable that influences the results of an experiment.

Internal Validity

The trustworthiness of a study based on the procedural steps put in place by the researcher. A study with confounding variables lacks internal validity.

Construct validity

To investigate if the measure really is measuring the theoretical construct it is supposed to be.

External validity

Is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people.

Population validity

Whether you can reasonably generalize the findings from your sample to a larger group of people.

Ecological validity

A measure of how test performance predicts behaviors in real-world settings.

Demand characteristics

Created when the participant believes s/he knows the goal of a study, and (often subconsciously) changes his/her responses as a result.

Participant bias

The tendency of participants in an experiment to consciously or subconsciously act in a way that they think the researcher wants them to act.

Expectancy effect

When a participant acts a certain way because he wants to do what the researcher asks.

"Screw you" effect

Occurs when a participant attempts to figure out the researcher's hypothesis, but only in order to destroy the credibility of the study.

Social desirability effect

When participants react in a certain way because they feel that this is the "socially acceptable" thing to do - and they know that they are being observed.

Order effects

Changes in participants' responses that result from the order (eg. first, second, third) in which the experimental conditions are presented to them.

Fatigue effect

Occurs when participants are asked to take part in several conditions of the same experiment, they may get tired or bored. In either case, they may lose motivation to try their best or their concentration may be impaired, influencing the results.

Interference effects

Exist when the fact that someone has taken part in one condition affects his/her ability to take part in the next condition

Practice effect

When participants are asked to do a task repeatedly, improvement of results may be seen.

Researcher bias

When the beliefs or opinions of the researcher influence the outcomes or conclusions of the research.

Confirmation bias

When a researcher searches for or interprets information in a way that confirms a pre-existing belief or hypothesis.

Funding bias

When a researcher is compelled to find a specific result because of who their research is supported by

Publication bias

When researcher/funder only publishes chosen information

Double-blind control

When both researcher and participant are ignorant

Psychology

Systematic study of behavior and mental processes in individuals

Behavior

Actions that can be externally observed

Mental processes

Complex internal cognition (conscious or unconscious)

Why do psychologists study behavior and cognition? Why not just one or the other

Because they're interconnected

Systematic study

Is methodical. It follows specific guidelines or patterns)

Anecdotal Evidence

Evidence that's been observed by someone and is more of a personal statement

Empirical Evidence

Evidence that's been gathered using the scientific method

Quantitative Methods

Research methods that focus on objective measurements and numerical analysis of data

Experiments

Research methods where variables are manipulated to observe the effect on another variable.

Correlational studies

Research methods used to determine the relationship between two or more variables.

Twin studies

Research that compares the similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins to understand genetic and environmental influences.

Qualitative Methods

Research methods that focus on exploring and understanding underlying meanings, patterns, and subjective interpretations.

Case studies

In-depth investigations of a single person, group, or event to explore causes, effects, or dynamics.

Interviews

A research method involving direct questioning of participants about their experiences, opinions, or behaviors.

Surveys/Questionnaires

Research tools used to collect data from a large number of respondents through written questions.

Experimentation

A research method where one or more variables are manipulated to determine their effect on an outcome variable, often conducted in controlled settings

Variables

Elements or factors that can change or vary in research studies.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated or categorized to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured or observed to see if it is affected by the independent variable.

Standardized procedure

A consistent method or protocol used in research to ensure that all participants are treated in the same way.

Thoughtful sampling

The process of selecting participants for a study in a way that ensures the sample is representative and addresses the research question effectively.

Operationalize

To provide a clear explanation of how variables are interpreted

Laboratory Experiments

conducted under highly- controlled conditions

Field Experiments

conducted in a natural environment, allowing for less control over variables

True Experiment

IV is manipulated and DV is measured under controlled settings; sample is randomly allocated to conditions

Natural Experiments

No IV is manipulated. The IV is naturally occuring and then the effects (DV) are measured.

Quasi Experiments

The IV is not manipulated by the researcher, but instead determined based on the participants' characteristics

Control

Making specific choices in an attempt to prevent extraneous variables from affecting the DV.

Participant

An individual who takes part in the experiment (or a different type of research study)

Confounding Variable

An element that is not being tested, but that can affect the DV if not controlled by the researcher

Aim

identifies the purpose of the research.

Hypothesis

should predict the impact the IV will have on the DV, while also clarifying how you will manipulate the IV.

Null Hypothesis

should state that there is no significant relationship between the IV and the DV.

Independent measures

are used when the researcher tests the different conditions of the experiment with separate groups of people.

Repeated measures

are used when the researcher tests the different conditions of the experiment within the same group of participants.

Matched pairs design

is used when the researcher tests the different conditions of the experiment on different groups of participants, but s/he ensures that the key characteristics of the participants in each group are the same.

Sample

a group of people whom a researcher tests for a particular study.

Target population

is the group that a researcher is attempting to represent with his/her study.

Self-selected sampling

occurs when participants volunteer to be a part of the study.

Opportunity sampling

occurs when the researcher uses a group of people who happen to be available.

Random sampling

occurs when the research gathers a group of applicable candidates but then randomly chooses participants from that group.

Purposive sampling

is looking for people with a very specific set of traits. This is often accomplished by a self-selected sample.

Snowball sampling

is another type of purposive sampling, is used when you are looking for participants from a specific group which would not respond to an ad in a paper.

Stratified sampling

attempts to make a sample that reflects the sub-groups within a target population.