AP European History Key Terms & People (The Renaissance and Reformation and the Religious Warfare in the 16th Century) - Chapters 12 & 13 (Unit 1)

Here are all the AP key terms and people from chapters 12 and 13 in “Western Civilization” by Jackson J. Spielvogel, which focuses on the Renaissance with its cultural rebirth through art, reasoning, and critical thinking, and the Reformation, where new interpretations and ideas about the Church and moral life began the creation of reform groups which eventually led into conflict and religious wars. These two chapters cover European history from 1400-1600.

Italian Renaissance

the "rebirth" of Classic culture that occurred in Italy between (c. 1350-1550) and saw the revival of antiquity (Greco-Roman civilization); a way to recover socially, economically, and politically from the horrendous 14th century of the Black Death and stressed on the "perfecting of the individual," individual ability, and secularism

Classical antiquity

the culture and civilization of ancient Greece and Rome that was rediscovered during the Renaissance which affected politics and art to reconcile the irreligious philosophy of the Greco-Roman world with Christian thought, as a way to see new ways of viewing human beings

Hanseatic League

a commercial and military alliance of north German coastal towns that established settlements and commercial bases throughout Northern Europe and had a monopoly on trade, like metals, which improved trade compared to the 14th century; grown during the removing of Italian city-states' trade routes

Medici family

a powerful banking family from Florence during the 1500s that focused mainly on commerce and real estate, in addition to cloth production; the principal bankers of the papacy that made huge profits and influence for its court; poor leadership and bad loans made them collapse

clergy

another term for the First Estate whose excellence was stressed in the belief that people should be sent to spiritual ends; their powerful beliefs will lead into more examination and the start of the Protestant Reformation

nobility

another term for the Second State whose focuses were based on the principle that the provided security and justice for society; served as military officers and held important political posts along with advising the king, just like in the Middle Ages

peasantry

another name for the Third Estate where made up 85 to 90% of the European population, except for cities in north Italy and Flanders; inhabitants made up the rest of this group, originally merchants and artisans who made up the bourgeoisie; lived through the decline of the manorial system and the continuing elimination of serfdom, which begun in the 12th century and accelerated by the Black Death; a Renaissance city of the 15th century had diverse people that would be widely separated socially and economically, which created rural _ and urban _ and even groups below them who lived through miserable lives

"The Book of the Courtier"

a book by Castiglione made in 1528 that described certain ideals expecting from a noble or aristocrat; he believes that they should show grace, talents, a noble birth, military skills, and a well-discipline Classical education; this book remained a fundamental handbook for European aristocrats for many years

balance of power

a distribution of power among several states such that no single nation can dominate or interfere with the interests of another; Niccolò Machiavelli's works were focused on this subject, which would affect how other leaders' thoughts on how to become a powerful empire

modern diplomacy

a system in which it was a product of the Italian Renaissance; ambassadors were mainly used on a temporary basis before the problem of the increasing amount of small states that could be vulnerable to their neighbors; ignited the beginning of modern politics where interests of the state replaced all other considerations

"The Prince"

a book written by Niccolò Machiavelli in 1513 where he stressed that the small Italian states were weak for larger monarchical states outside of the country's borders, which made Italy a battleground for armies of foreign states; mostly concerned about the acquisition and expansion of political power as the means to restore and maintain order during his time; includes the famous statement, "It is better to be feared than to be loved"; still affects world leaders to this day

individualism

one of the two characteristics of the Italian Renaissance where emphasis is on and interest in the unique traits of each person; influenced High Renaissance artists due to their new techniques for a scientific observation of the world around them and would use this for creative expression

secularism

one of the two characteristics of the Italian Renaissance in which a person becomes more concerned with material, worldly, temporal things and less with spiritual and religious things; another characteristic that influenced Renaissance artists due to their stressed imitation of nature and the reality of the world

humanism

an important intellectual movement associated with the Renaissance where study was based on the study of Greco-Roman classics; things like grammar, poetry, and history were promoted because of Petrarch's belief that medieval culture was ignorant of Classical antiquity; led to the idea of "liberal studies" where it stressed that it was the key to true freedom, making individuals to reach their full potential

Petrarch

(1304-1374) the father of humanism for his use of the Italian Vernacular; did more than any other person in the 14th century to care the development of Renaissance humanism; his interest in the classics made him look for forgotten Latin manuscripts and put them into effect in monastic libraries throughout Europe; had a humanist emphasis on the use of pure Classical Latin

civic humanism

an intellectual movement of the Italian Renaissance that saw Cicero, who was both an intellectual and a statesman, as the ideal and held that humanists should be involved in government and use their rhetorical training in the service of the state; started in Florence when humanism took a different direction starting in the 15th century when it became closely tied to Florentine civic spirit and pride; (e.g. Leonardo Bruni's biography of Cicero stressed that an individual only "grows to maturity— both intellectually and morally—through participation")

Platonic Academy

an informal discussion group that was ignited in the second half of the 15th century due to a dramatic popularity of interest in the works of Plato; his works combined with Christianity made the idea of a hierarchy of substances, which the idea is going to transform for centuries to come

Neoplatonism

a revival of Platonic philosophy in the third century C.E., associated with Plotinus; a similar revival in the Italian Renaissance, associated with Marsilio Ficino, who attempted to synthesize Christianity and Platonism; Ficino's beliefs made the idea of a hierarchy of substances (plants to God), which the idea is going to transform for centuries to come; Ficino's theory of Platonic or spiritual love maintained that just as all people are bound together in their common humanity by love, like all parts of the universe held together by bonds of sympathetic love

Hermeticism

an intellectual movement beginning in the 15th century that taught that divinity is embodied in all aspects of nature; included works on alchemy and magic as well as theology and philosophy; (e.g. Pico della Mirandola's "Oration on the Dignity of Man", which stresses unlimited human potential); would influence many figures of the Scientific Revolution

printing press

an invention during the Renaissance that was made in 1450 and created by Johannes Gutenberg, in which he used printing from movable type; printing becomes faster throughout Europe in the second half of the 15th century and also led to the rise of Lutheranism and other reformation groups

naturalism

a broad approach that stressed on accurately and realistically depicting the world as it appears; because of this approach, human beings became the focus of attention and was the main focus for Italian Renaissance artists; people could now see the realities of a human physically, not just mentally, which is the harder way

perspective

a realistic style of painting that focused on a more realistic relationship between figures and landscape; emphasized the mathematical side of painting and the organization of outdoor space and light by geometry (mainly 3D figures); figures became unimportant stage props; Masaccio's cycle of frescoes provided a model for future Florentine artists

Brunelleschi

(1377-1446) Italian architect who was a friend of Donatello and was inspired from architectural monuments of Roman antiquity; finished the Duomo in Florence that was started in 1296; the Church of San Lorenzo, which was commissioned by the Medici to let him design the church, had Classical columns, rounded arches, and a coffered ceiling that didn't overwhelm a worshiper materially and psychologically; architects like him looked to reflect a human-centered world

High Renaissance

(1480-1520) the final stage of Renaissance art, where its peak was in 1500, was also where artists had mastered the new techniques, like perspective, for a scientific observation of the world around them and were now ready to move into more individualistic forms of creative expression; increased importance of Rome as a new cultural center of the Italian Renaissance; dominated by Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael

Leonardo da Vinci

(1452-1519) Italian painter, sculptor, and architect who carried on the 15th century experimental tradition by studying everything and even dissecting human anatomy to see more clearly on how nature worked; his "Last Supper" used perspective to depict subjects in 3D in a 2D medium; stressed the need to advance beyond such realism and started the High Renaissance's preoccupation with the the idealization of nature (realistic portrayal to an ideal form)

Raphael

(1483-1520) Italian painter who was regarded as one of Italy's best painters and is best known for his madonnas and frescoes in the Vatican Palace, in where he tried to achieve an ideal of beauty far surpassing human standards; his most famous "School of Athens" reveals a world of balance, harmony, and order, and even included figures like Plato and Aristotle

Michelangelo

(1475-1564) Italian sculptor, painter, and architect who was greatly influenced by Neoplatonism and painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel due to Pope Julius II's commission to decorate the ceiling; completed in 1512, the ceiling comprises of nine scenes from the first book of the Bible, Genesis, to tell the story of Adam and Eve's disobedience to God; these figures were meant to be a reflection of divine beauty in good Neoplatonic fashion

Jan van Eyck

(c. 1390-1441) Flemish painter who was among the first to use oil paint, which enabled an artist to use a varied range of colors and create fine details; his "Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride" put rendered details, like a mirror reflecting the objects in the room, which put the laws of perspective in question; painters like him placed more emphasis on the emotional intensity of religious feeling and created works of devotional art, especially in altarpieces

Albrecht Dürer

(1471-1528) German painter and writer who was inspired of what the Italians did with their paintings, which is pretty evidential in his mastery of the laws of perspective and the Renaissance theories of proportion; his most famous "Adoration of the Magi" didn't reject the use of small details characteristic artists of other northern artists, but achieved a standard of ideal beauty with those details by a thorough examination of the human form, like the Italian Renaissance artists

new monarchies

the governments of France, England, and Spain at the end of the 15th century, whose rulers succeeded in reestablishing or extending centralized royal authority, suppressing the nobility, controlling the church, and insisting on the loyalty of all peoples living in their territories; even though Western European rulers were good at extending royal authority, rulers in other parts of Europe were usually weak and not able to stop their authority

Louis XI of France

(1461-1483) known as the Spider because of his wily and devious ways, he retained the taille as a permanent tax imposed by royal authority, making it a sound, regular source of income; even though not completely successful in repressing the French nobility, whose independence made a threat to his own state building, Charles VII's death in 1477 in fighting the Swiss made him control the duchy of Burgundy to his own lands; historians believed that it was a base for the later development of a strong French monarchy

Henry VII of England

(1485-1509) king who worked to reduce internal dissension and make a strong monarchical government; he ended the private wars of nobility by getting rid of "livery and maintenance," which is where wealthy aristocrats maintained private armies of followers dedicated to the service of their lord; relied on special commissions to trusted nobles to raise troops for a specific campaign; made the Court of Star Chamber to control irresponsible activity of the nobles; his policies of extracting income from the traditional financial resources of the English monarch and using diplomacy to avoid wars, which were expensive, made England a stable and prosperous government and an enhanced status for its monarchy

Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain

(1479-1516) and (1474-1504) rulers who were married in 1469, which was a dynastic union between both Aragon and Castile, which maintained their own parliaments, courts, laws, coinage, speech, customs, and political organs; strengthen royal control of government, especially in Castile; made a policy of pushing Muslims out of Granada to maintain greater Spanish unity; expelled Jews for converting back to Judaism from the newly unified Spain and started the Inquisition; made a strong unified infantry force

Inquisition

introduced in 1478 by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, they prompted the creation due to the important Jews in the "new" country's society secretly converting back to Judaism; the event where Spain was looking more on the anti-Semitism side; the conquest of Muslim Granada made lots of professed Jews expelled, as 150,000 to 200,000 fled

Habsburg (Hapsburg) family

a dynasty in which after 1438, the position of the Holy Roman Emperor remained in their hands; had possessions along the Danube had made them one of the wealthiest landholders in the HRE and by the mid-15th century, became important in European affairs; their well-executed policy of dynastic marriages, like Maximilian to Mary, the daughter of Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy, Emperor Frederick III (1440-1493), they gained Franche-Comté in east-central France and the Low Countries, which made them an international power and brought it the lasting opposition of the French monarchy because of their surroundings

Fall of the Byzantine Empire

(1453) Ottomans, with their 80,000 troops and led by Sultan Mehmed II, used massive cannons, which ultimately made the walls breached, the siege of Constantinople, and the later death of the Byzantine emperor in the final battle; Constantinople, Bosnia, Albania, and the rest of Serbia were added to the Ottoman Empire in addition to the Balkans; made the Ottomans a very powerful empire

Ottoman Turks

a group that increasingly threatened Eastern Europe and started attacking in northeastern Asia Minor in the 13th century and taking the lands of the Seljuk Turks and the Byzantine Empire; bypassed Constantinople in 1345 and moved into the Balkans, which they won crucial battles, especially the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, and also made them control all of the Balkans by 1480; seized Constantinople in 1453 to make the Byzantine Empire fall, but were resisted by the Hungarians; realized internal problems and their need to consolidate their eastern frontiers made them slow down

Lollards

followers of English theologian John Wyclif (c. 1328-1384) who were not happy with clerical corruption, which made Wyclif make numerous attacks on papal authority and medieval Christian beliefs and practices; followers who believed that there was no basis in Scripture for papal claims of temporal authority and stressed that the popes should be stripped from their authority and property, sola scriptura, in which Wyclif wanted to translate the Bible into the vernacular languages, condemned pilgrimages, venerated saints, and had series of rituals and rites that had been made in the medieval church

Hussites

reformers led by chancellor of the university at Prague John Hus (1374-1415), in which he wanted to eliminated worldliness and corruption of the clergy and attacked the abnormal power of the papacy within the Catholic Church; large landowners in Bohemia were largely criticizes; German clergymen and the native Czechs; strong resentment of the Germans helped his movement; unfortunately burned at the stake because of the Council of Constance for being considered a heretic, which led to an unrest in Bohemia and the eventual Hussite wars that racked the HRE until peace talks were arranged in 1436

nepotism

the appointment of family members to important political positions; derived from the regular appointment of nephews by Renaissance popes; used by popes to look for loyal servants due to the fact that they were not hereditary monarchs, which could make them lose the ability to build dynasties over generations; a way for Pope Julius II and other popes to further extend territorial aims in the Papal States; also a way to give abundances of church offices to build up finances

Julius II

(1503-1513) the most involved in war and politics out of all the Renaissance popes; "warrior-pope" who led armies against his enemies, much to the resent of devoted Christians who viewed the popes as a spiritual leader; a great patron of Renaissance culture, he was mostly a matter of policy as he cared to add to the magnificence of his papal rule by tearing down St. Peter's Basilica, which was built by the emperor Constantine, and began construction of the greatest building in Christendom, today's St. Peter's Basilica; his papal successor was Leo X

Christian humanism

an intellectual movement in northern Europe in the late 15th and early 16th centuries that combined the interest in the classics of the Italian Renaissance with an interest in the sources of early Christianity, including the New Testament and the writings of the church fathers; returned to the writings of antiquity and focused on the sources of early Christianity, the Holy Scriptures and the writings of church fathers; discovered a simple religion that they came to feel had been distorted by the complicated theological debates of the Middle Ages; convinced of a human being to reason and improve themselves, through education in the sources of Classical, especially Christian, antiquity, that they could instill a true inner piety or an inward religious feeling that would bring about a reform of the church and society; influenced reformers like Martin Luther to write his "95 Theses"

Erasmus

(1466-1536) Dutch humanist who formulated and popularized the reform program of Christian humanism, wrote "The Handbook of the Christian Knight" stressing that Christianity should be the guiding philosophy for the direction of daily life rather than dogmatic beliefs and practices that the medieval church stressed; critical of the Latin Vulgate's errors; wrote "In Praise of Folly" in 1509 stressing the common sense criticisms of the abuses in the church; very harsh on the abuses within the clergy; "He laid the egg that Luther hatched."

pluralism

the practice of holding several church offices simultaneously; a problem of the late medieval church; high church officials used this practice to increase their revenues; led in turn to absenteeism, where church officeholders ignored their duties and hired unqualified people that might not even be qualified to take that position; ignorance and ineptness like this of parish priests became a widespread issue in the 15th century

indulgences

in Christian theology, the forgiveness of part or all of the temporal punishment in purgatory due to sin; granted for charitable contributions and other good deeds; became a regular practice of the Christian church in the High Middle Ages, and their abuse was instrumental in sparking Luther's reform movement in the 16th century with his "95 Theses" in 1517

"95 Theses"

(1517) written by Martin Luther due to the sale of indulgences in which he nailed them on a church door in Wittenberg; started the Protestant Reformation due to the fast spreading because of the new printing press by Johannes Gutenberg

Charles V

reigned as Holy Roman Emperor starting in 1519 who ruled an immense empire consisting of Spain and its overseas possessions, the Austrian Habsburg lands, Bohemia, Hungary, the Low Countries, and the kingdom of Naples in southern Italy; sought to maintain religious unity throughout the HRE by keeping all his subjects within the bounds of the Catholic Church; conflicts with Francis I of France, the papacy, Ottoman Turks, and German princes made the spread of Lutheranism difficult

Peace of Augsburg

(1555) the agreement that ended the dispute between Lutheranism and Catholicism; German princes could choose the religion of his subjects, but not the other way around; Protestants could now move to Protestant states, only if they lived in Catholic states (vice versa works too); the agreement that ended Charles V's dreams of a united empire and the ideal of medieval Christian unity; an important turning point in the history of the Protestant Reformation

Ulrich Zwingli

(1484-1531) Swiss reformer who was a product of the Swiss forest cantons; preached the Gospel, which caused unrest in 1523 that led a city council to host a public disputation or debate in the town hall, a common method of spreading the Reformation to many cities; his followers believed in memorialism, sola scriptura, sola fide (because it wouldn't be a distraction from God), and he also got rid of monasticism, pilgrimages, the veneration of saints, clerical celibacy, and the pope's authority; had a famous debate at the Marburg Colloquy with Martin Luther about the interpretation of the Last Supper

Anabaptists

English radicals that were actually members of a large variety of groups who shared common characteristics and were attractive to the poor people who had been affected by the economic changes of the age; believers who believed in adult baptism rather than infant baptism, a complete separation of church and state, refused to hold political office or bear arms because many took "Thou shall not kill" literally, rejected the Trinity, transubstantiation, and followed a strict sort of democracy in which all believers were considered equal; also believed in free will (don't have to accept the truth of the Bible) and that the end of the world was coming up; suffered because of the German Peasants' War (1524-1525); also burnt books; active during the Münster tragedy, in which it combined Catholic and Protestant armies

John Calvin

(1509-1564) French theologian in which he emphasized heavily on the absolute sovereignty of God; his followers believed in predestination, or the belief that God has predestined some people to be saved and others to be damned; believed in three points that might indicate salvation: an open profession of faith, "a decent and godly life," and participation in Baptism and the Communion; stressed that there's no absolute certainty of salvation; predestination effected Calvinists' unshakable conviction that they were doing "good works" on Earth; an activist international form of Protestantism; set up the Consistory in Geneva in the 1530s to enforce moral discipline; made Geneva a vibrant Protestant center; missionaries trained in Geneva were sent to all parts of Europe and became a huge international form of Protestantism throughout the 16th century

Act of Supremacy

(1534) the act that declared that the king was "… the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England"; made the Church of England break away from Rome and the papacy due to Henry VIII's marriage issues; English monarchs could now control the church in all matters of doctrine, clerical appointments, and discipline; act that led to the Treason Act to kill people denying the king's power

Henry VIII

(1509-1547) the king who initiated the English Reformation because of his want to divorce Catherine of Aragon for not producing a male heir; fell in love later with Anne Boleyn; Thomas Cromwell (1485-1540) and Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556) urged the king to make an annulment of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon in England's own papal courts; wanted to separate from the pope because Anne Boleyn was pregnant and had secretly married her in 1533 to legitimize the expected heir; Cranmer made this annulment possible by declaring it as "null and absolutely void"; and then confirmed validation of the marriage with Anne Boleyn, in which to his disappointment, gave birth to a girl, the later and great Elizabeth I; his six wives led to the Act of Supremacy; succeeded by nine-year old Elizabeth VI (1547-1533), the son of Jane Seymour, his third wife

Catholic Reformation

the movement for the reform of the Catholic Church in the 16th century which included a revived papacy; the regeneration of old religious orders and the founding of new ones, like the Jesuits; and the reaffirmation of traditional Catholic doctrine at the Council of Trent; could be called a "Counter Reformation" as a direct reaction against the Protestant movement; believers who use this term believed that elements of reform were already in the Catholic Church; had to contain elements of truth

Jesuit Order

the most important new religious order, which was also known as the Society of Jesus, that was started by Spanish nobleman Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556), in which his battle struggles led him to be a soldier of God; Loyola's "The Spiritual Exercises" developed a training manual for a conquest of one's life for service to the hierarchical Catholic Church; followers' goal was to commit a Christian to active service under Jesus's banner in the Catholic Church; Loyola's gathering of a small group of individuals were later recognized as this religious order by a papal bull in 1540, in which they had principles of absolute obedience to the papacy, a strict hierarchical order for the society, the use of education to achieve its goals, and dedication in "conflict for God"; missionaries of this group were spread to Asia, like Japan and India

Council of Trent

(1545-1563) a series of three separate sessions that Pope Paul III created that called for a general council of Christendom to resolve the religious differences created by the Protestant papacy; started when a group of cardinals, archbishops, bishops, abbots, and theologians gathered in a city on the border between Germany and Italy; Moderate Catholic reformers hoped that the council made some compromises in coming up with doctrinal definitions that would encourage Protestants to return to the Church; final decrees reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings in opposition to Protestant beliefs; reaffirmed mostly every belief that Martin Luther denied; the Roman Catholic Church is now a clear body of doctrine and a unified church under the acknowledged supremacy of the popes, who had triumphed over bishops and councils and is now one Christian denomination

Huguenots

French Calvinists that came from all levels of society: artisans and shopkeepers hurt by rising prices and a rigid guild system, merchants and lawyers in provincial towns whose local privileges were tenuous, and members of the nobility; conversion into these groups of people from the French nobility (which included the Bourbon and Valois house) led to the French Wars of Religion; the Guise, an ultra-Catholic party in France, strictly opposed this group

French Wars of Religion

(1562-1598) a series of wars between the Huguenots and Catholics that started because of the conversion of the French nobility into Huguenots and resent of the growing power of monarchical centralization, where towns and provinces were only too willing to join a revolt against the monarchy (consider the nobility when they opposed to the crown because they were mainly Calvinists); became a major constitutional crisis for France and temporarily stopped the development of the French centralized territorial state; included the horrific St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in 1572

politiques

a group who emerged during the French Wars of Religion in the sixteenth century, placed politics above religion, and believed that no religious truth was worth the ravages of civil war; examples include Elizabeth I of England and Henry IV of France, in which their policies became crucial in defeating the Spanish Armada and ending the French Wars of Religion, respectively

Edict of Nantes

(1598) the act that acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion of France but guaranteed the Huguenots the right to worship in selected places in every district and allowed them to retain a number of fortified towns, universities, and public offices for their protection; not really a formal recognition of Protestantism as a legal religion

Philip II

(1556-1598) Spanish king and the son and heir of Charles V who oversaw the "Golden Age of Spain," worked in the Escorial, which symbolized the power of him and his commitment to Catholicism (Baroque art), opposed the spread of Protestantism into his native Spain and other European giants, and defeated the Turks in the Battle of Lepanto (1571) that ended Turkish threat in the Mediterranean; held back by the Dutch Revolt, in which William of Orange (1533-1584) led 17 provinces (the Dutch Republic) against him, which also made Amsterdam the new commercial center (replacing Antwerp) [wanted to stop the spread of Calvinism], colonial wealth, and the Spanish Armada (1588) due to his want for England to be Catholic

Elizabeth I

(1533-1603) English queen and practical politique who created a strong, centralized monarchy based on national unity and a sharing of power between monarchy and Parliament, was made "the only supreme governor of this realm, as well in all spiritual or ecclesiastical things or causes, as temporal" by the Act of Supremacy, created a settlement to have a compromise between Protestantism and Catholicism (you must conform to the Church of England publicly, but could worship in private), had policy based on the quality of cautiousness, moderation, compromise, and expediency, oversaw the development of Protestantism in England, beheaded Mary, Queen of Scots because of ill-planned Catholic plots made to kill Elizabeth and replace her on the throne with the Catholic Mary, made the 39 Articles (1563), in which it defended the creed of the Anglican Church from the Puritans, a group that wanted to remove Catholicism from the Church of England, and prevented Spanish invasion led by Philip II (1588)