AP Psych Unit 5

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring, storing, processing, and using information, including thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people that helps organize and simplify our understanding of the world

Prototypes

The best or most typical example of a concept that serves as a mental reference point for categorizing new items

Metacognition

Thinking about one's own thinking; awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes

Algorithm

A step-by-step methodical procedure or formula that guarantees a solution to a problem but may be time-consuming

Heuristics

Simple thinking strategies or mental shortcuts that allow us to make judgments and solve problems quickly and efficiently, though sometimes leading to errors

Insight

A sudden realization or "aha moment" where the solution to a problem becomes clear all at once

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and recall information in ways that confirm our preexisting beliefs or hypotheses

Fixation

The inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective, often due to being stuck on unsuccessful solutions from the past

Mental set

A tendency to approach problems in a particular way, especially using methods that worked in similar past situations

Schema

A mental framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information based on past experiences

Assimilation

The process of interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas or mental frameworks

Accommodation

The process of adjusting or changing existing schemas to incorporate new information that doesn't fit

Functional fixedness

The cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the traditional way it's normally used

Executive functions

Higher-level cognitive processes that control and regulate other cognitive activities, including planning, decision-making, problem-solving, and self-control

Intuition

An immediate, automatic feeling or thought that occurs without conscious reasoning or deliberate analysis

Representativeness heuristic

Judging the likelihood of something by how well it matches our prototype or mental representation of that category

Availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind, often influenced by recent or vivid memories

Priming

The activation of particular associations in memory, making certain information more accessible and influencing subsequent thoughts and behaviors

Nudge

A subtle change in the way choices are presented that influences people's decisions without restricting their options

Gambler's fallacy

The mistaken belief that past random events affect the probability of future random events

Sunk cost fallacy

The tendency to continue investing in something because of previously invested resources, even when it's no longer rational to do so

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge, beliefs, and judgments

Belief perseverance

Clinging to one's beliefs even after the evidence supporting them has been discredited or disproven

Framing

The way an issue or question is presented, which can significantly influence decisions and judgments

Language

A system of communication using sounds, symbols, or gestures organized according to rules that convey meaning

Phonemes

The smallest distinctive units of sound in a language that can distinguish one word from another

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language, including words and parts of words like prefixes and suffixes

Grammar

The system of rules that governs how words are arranged and combined to form meaningful phrases and sentences

Semantics

The study of meaning in language; the rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences

Syntax

The rules for combining words into grammatically correct sentences and phrases

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas, involving original thinking that produces new solutions or artistic expressions

Convergent thinking

A type of thinking that focuses on finding the single best or most conventional solution to a problem

Divergent thinking

A type of thinking that generates multiple creative solutions or possibilities to a problem

Universal grammar (UG)

Noam Chomsky's theory that all humans are born with an innate capacity for language and share a set of grammatical rules common to all languages

Receptive language

The ability to understand and comprehend spoken or written language

Productive language

The ability to produce and express language through speaking or writing

Babbling

The stage in language development (around 4 months) when infants spontaneously produce various sounds that are not yet meaningful words

One-word stage

The stage in language development (around age 1) when children speak mostly in single words

Two-word stage

The stage in language development (around age 2) when children begin combining two words to form simple sentences

Telegraphic speech

Early speech consisting of short, simple sentences using mostly nouns and verbs, resembling a telegram

Critical period

A specific time in development when an organism is especially sensitive to certain environmental experiences necessary for proper development

Cooing

The earliest stage of language development (around 2 months) when infants make vowel-like sounds

Overgeneralization

Applying a grammatical rule too broadly, such as saying "goed" instead of "went"

Aphasia

An impairment of language ability due to brain damage, affecting the production or comprehension of speech

Broca's area

A region in the frontal lobe of the brain responsible for speech production and language expression

Wernicke's area

A region in the temporal lobe of the brain responsible for language comprehension and understanding

Linguistic determinism

The strong version of the theory that language determines thought and that linguistic categories limit cognitive categories

Linguistic relativism

The idea that language influences thought and that speakers of different languages think differently

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

General intelligence (g)

A general underlying intelligence factor that influences performance on all cognitive tasks

Factor analysis

A statistical method used to identify clusters of related abilities or traits that appear to reflect a common underlying factor

Savant syndrome

A condition in which a person with limited mental ability has exceptional specific skills in areas such as music, art, or calculation

Multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner's theory that there are eight or more independent types of intelligence rather than one general intelligence

Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory that intelligence consists of three aspects: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence

Analytical intelligence

The type of intelligence involving problem-solving and academic tasks, similar to traditional IQ

Creative intelligence

The ability to adapt to new situations, generate novel ideas, and deal with new challenges

Practical intelligence

The ability to adapt to everyday life and solve real-world problems effectively

Emotional intelligence

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively in oneself and others

Perceiving emotions

The ability to recognize and identify emotions in oneself and others through facial expressions, body language, and tone

Understanding emotions

The ability to comprehend emotional language, interpret the causes and consequences of emotions, and understand complex feelings

Managing emotions

The ability to regulate emotions in oneself and others, including calming down when upset or motivating oneself

Using emotions to enable creative thinking

The ability to harness emotions to facilitate thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, and creativity

Intelligence test

A method designed to assess an individual's mental aptitudes and compare them with others using numerical scores

Achievement test

A test designed to measure what a person has learned or accomplished in a particular area

Aptitude test

A test designed to predict a person's future performance or ability to learn new skills

Alfred Binet

French psychologist who developed the first modern intelligence test to identify children needing special educational assistance

Mental age

A measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that typically corresponds to a given level of performance

Lewis Terman

American psychologist who adapted Binet's test to create the Stanford-Binet intelligence test

Stanford-Binet

The widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test

Eugenics

A discredited movement aimed at improving the human species through selective breeding and sterilization

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A number representing a person's reasoning ability compared to the statistical average for their age group

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

The most widely used intelligence test for adults, measuring various cognitive abilities

Psychometrics

The scientific study of measuring mental capacities and processes, including intelligence and personality

Cross-sectional study

A research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

Longitudinal study

A research method that studies the same individuals over an extended period of time

Standardization

The process of establishing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, and creating norms by testing a representative sample

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many attributes; most scores fall near the average with fewer at the extremes

Flynn effect

The observation that intelligence test scores have steadily increased over generations in many countries

Reliability

The extent to which a test yields consistent results over time or across different conditions

Validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure or predict

Content validity

The extent to which a test samples the behavior or knowledge it is supposed to measure

Predictive validity

The success with which a test predicts future performance on a related criterion

Construct validity

The extent to which a test measures the theoretical construct or trait it claims to measure

Test-retest reliability

The consistency of test scores when the same individuals are tested and retested with the same test

Split-half reliability

A measure of reliability obtained by dividing a test into two parts and correlating scores on both halves

Cohort

A group of people born during the same time period who share common historical experiences

Crystallized intelligence (gc)

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that tend to increase with age

Fluid intelligence (gf)

The ability to reason quickly and abstractly, which tends to decline with age

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory (CHC)

A comprehensive theory of cognitive abilities that integrates multiple perspectives on intelligence structure

Intellectual disability

A condition of limited mental ability indicated by an intelligence score below 70 and difficulty adapting to everyday life

Down syndrome

A genetic disorder caused by an extra chromosome 21, typically associated with intellectual disability and distinctive physical features

Gifted

Having exceptionally high intelligence, creativity, or talent, typically indicated by an IQ score above 130

Heritability

The proportion of variation in a trait among individuals that can be attributed to genetic differences

Twin Studies

Research comparing similarities between identical and fraternal twins to estimate the heritability of traits

Growth mindset

The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication, effort, and learning

Fixed mindset

The belief that abilities and intelligence are static traits that cannot be changed significantly

Stereotype threat

The risk of confirming negative stereotypes about one's group, which can impair performance on tests or tasks

Stereotype lift

The performance boost that members of one group may experience when they are aware of negative stereotypes about another grou