Myers Psychology for AP 2e - Unit 03

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 012, 077)

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 078)

refractory period

(1) a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 079)

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 080)

endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 082)

agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 082)

antagonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 083, 342)

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 086)

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. (Also called the skeletal nervous system.) (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 087)

reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 089)

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 090)

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 090)

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 091)

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 091)

lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 094)

electroencephalogram (EEG)

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)

CT (computed tomography)

scan a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)

PET (positron emission tomography)

scan a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer -generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 095)

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as its structure. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 096)

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 097 )

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heart-beat and breathing. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 097)

thalamus

the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 097)

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 098)

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 098)

limbic system

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 098)

amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 099)

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 099)

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 104)

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 104)

frontal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

parietal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 105)

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 107)

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 109)

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 111)

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 112)

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 114)

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 114)

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 118, 219)

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 7, 119)

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 120)

behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)

environment

every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)

genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 124)

identical twins (monozygotic twins)

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 125)

fraternal twins (dizygotic twins)

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 125)

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 129)

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 129, 632)

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity). (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 131)

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 131)

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 12, 135)

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e pp. 10, 135)

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change. (Myers Psychology for AP 2e p. 136)