Research Methods

Research Method

What is the positivist approach?

To view sociology as a science that uses the scientific method to study social facts from a macro perspective

What is the interpretivist approach?

To view sociology by focusing on the meanings, motivations and values individuals attach to their actions within cultural and social contexts

Bias

a lack of objectivity or inclination to favour a person or idea, regardless of the facts

Validity

whether the data being measured accurately depicts the real world

reliability

the ability to achieve the same procedure to get more consistent & confident results

Representativeness

describes how well a research sample mirrors the characteristics of a larger target population

Generalisability

The degree to which study findings from a sample can apply to a larger population or different contexts.

Quantitative data

information that can be measured, counted, and expressed with numbers

Qualitative Data

focuses on understanding the meanings, experiences, and behaviours of individuals and groups through non-numerical data

Objectivity

To not be influenced by opinion/experience in the findings of an experiment

Replicability

The ability to repeat an experiment/study with standardised conditions

Strengths of qualitative data

Detailed information

Provides context

Flexible and adaptable

Strengths of quantitative data

Reliable

Objective

Generalisable 

Limitations of qualitative data

Lack of reliability- subjective

Difficulty generalising

Limitations of quantitative data

Lack of depth/context

Limited/misleading responses

operationalisation meaning

Finding ways to ask questions about, or to measure and observe, abstract concepts so that research can be carried out

hypothesis meaning

a tentative, testable statement that proposes a relationship between two or more variables

pilot studies meaning

A small preliminary test of a larger research project to identify and resolve potential issues before the full study begins

what are the different sampling techniques?

Stratified Random, Systematic, Snowball, Non-representative, Probability and Quota

what is probability sampling?

a method where every individual in a population has an equal chance of being selected for a study

what is systematic sampling?

a method where every nth participant can be selected- this is done until the researcher has the desired number of participants

what is stratified sampling?

a method where a population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on shared characteristics like age, gender or race, and then a random sample is drawn from each subgroup

what is snowball sampling?

a method in sociology where no sampling frame is used and initial participants refer other people they know to be included in the study

what is non-representative sampling?

a method where the sample selected for a study does not accurately reflect the characteristics of the larger population

what is quota sampling?

a method that divides a population into subgroups based on specific characteristics, selecting a predetermined number of participants from each

what are the strengths of probability sampling?

reduces bias- eliminates investigator bias, simple to conduct

what are the limitations of probability sampling?

Time-consuming, a large sample size must be used to be effective, confounding results by chance

what are the strengths of systematic sampling?

simple, cost-effective, unbiased

what are the limitations of systematic sampling?

inherent bias- periodic traits may occur by chance

what are the strengths of stratified sampling?

representative, unbiased

what are the limitations of stratified sampling?

requires extensive prior knowledge

time-consuming

what are the strengths of snowball sampling?

valid data- gain access to hidden populations, less complicated, cost-effective

what are the limitations of snowball sampling?

not representative, sampling bias, time consuming- rapport

what are the strengths of quota sampling?

saves time- reduces load on investigators, cost-effective

what are the limitations of quota sampling?

lack of randomness is less reliable, researcher bias- individual choice is introduced

what are the strengths of non-representative sampling?

more in-depth data

what are the limitations of non-representative sampling?

not representative- can’t use it on other populations, cannot generalise

What is socialisation?

The life-long process where individuals learn norms, values, beliefs, and behaviours of their society and internalise it.

What is marxism?

A theoretical perspective that sees conflict between classes as the most important feature of society

What is functionalism?

Society is likened to interconnected institutions that work together to maintain stability and order, similar to a human body.

What is feminism?

a theory that views society as patriarchal and based on gender inequality

What were the findings of James Patrick?

Social conditions led to the formation of a gang, which engaged in conflict situations that often did not result in actual fights.

what is a consensus?

agreement: a perspective on society which assumes that people generally share values

what is structuralism?

Sociological theory that says society is rooted in deep structures, shaping individual thoughts, actions, and cultural phenomena

what do positivists argue that behaviour is governed by?

social facts- laws, values, customs and other social rules in which individuals have no control

what is an empirical method?

one which allows us to objectively observe/measure some aspect of our behaviour and use the findings to develop existing theories or introduce new ones

value free research meaning

the ability of the researcher to keep their own values (personal, political and religious) from interfering with the research process + findings

what did durkheim conclude from his research?

the personal act of suicide is affected by the external social conditions- there is a relationship between the degree of integration/regulation in society and the suicide rate

why do positivists favour quantitative data?

it can be presented in numbers, so statistical tests can measure the strength of relationships between two or more factors

what is a casual relationship?

cause and effect- one factor causes another

what is a correlation?

a statistical link that indicates the extent to which two or more variables/ factors fluctuate in relation to each other

verstehen meaning

understanding the meaning of actions from the actor’s point of view

what is ecological validity?

it asks the question in whether the findings can be applied to other settings

what is historical validity?

it asks the question in whether the findings can be applied to different periods of time

what is the conflict approach?

A perspective that views society as unequal with conflict and social change arising from competition for limited resources like wealth, power, and status.

what does PERVRT stand for?

Practical, ethical, reliability, validity, representativeness, theoretical

what does it mean by ‘practical’ in PERVRT

Refers to factors like time, cost, and the availability of a sample.

what does it mean by ‘ethical’ in PERVRT

whether the research meets ethical guidelines, such as informed consent or anonymity

what does it mean by ‘theoretical’ in PERVRT

theoretical perspective (positivist or interpretivist) that informs the research method and the potential for researcher bias

Falsification definition

the process of testing a hypothesis or theory with the aim of refuting it

What are two features of functionalism

Biological analogy

socialisation

What are two features of marxism

Class struggle

Superstructure

Superstructure definition

Social institutions such as family, education, mass media and religion, which play a role in passing on the bourgeois ideology

Two features of feminism

Patriarchy

gender inequality