BIOL 1015

Type A blood

A antigens present on the surface of red blood cells

B antibodies present in plasma

Can receive from type A or O

Can donate to type A and AB

Type B blood

B antigens present on the surface of red blood cells

A antibodies present in plasma

Can receive from type B or O

Can donate to type B or AB

Type AB blood

A & B antigens present on the surface of red blood cells

No antibodies present

Universal recipient

Can donate to type AB

Type O blood

No antigens present

A and B Antibodies present in plasma

Universal donor

Can receive from type O

Determining blood type

Clumping with Anti-A serum = A antigens present = type A blood

Clumping with Anti-B serum = B antigens = type B blood

Clumping with anti Rh factor = Rh factor present = positive

mitosis

duplication of a cell

growth and repair throughout body and life span

each new daughter cell = 46 chromosomes

meiosis

division (46 to 23 chromosomes)

produce gametes

homologous chromosomes separate

4 daughter cells with half the amount of chromosomes created

nondisjunction

occurs in either division of meiosis and with any 23 pairs of chromosomes

occurs only with meiosis

1st division: abnormal chromosomes → extra or missing

2nd division: both chromatids move into daughter cell

aneuploidy

missing or extra chromosome

very few seen in humans → most not comparable with human life

occurring on autosomes → more severe

on sex chromosomes → less severe

trisomy and monosomy

trisonomy → 3 copy of a particular chromosome, is survivable

monosomy → only one copy of a particular chromosome, lethal to fetuses

down syndrome

extra chromosome 21 (+21)

affects boys and girls equally

most frequently occurring chromosome disorder

short, heart defects, intellectual disability, suppressed immune system

genetic variation

diversity within a population occurring through crossing over, independent assortment, mutations, and reproduction

crossing over

“trading” of genes between homologous chromosomes

increase diversity among individuals within a population

via meiosis

independent assortment

chromosomes if each pair line up along equator at random

each pair of chromosomes line up along the equator indepedently if every other chromosome pair

mutations

changes in an individuals DNA

just happens or triggered by environment

natural selection

organisms within a species exhibit variation, some are more likely to survive in particular environments more than others

link to mutations: favorable traits are passed to offspring, resulting in a population mutating or changing over time

homologous chromosomes

two members if each chromosome pair

same length, banding, and genes for the same trait at the same location

autosomes

chromosome pairs 1-22

controls various characteristics throughout the body

chromosomes

46 individual chromosomes

23 pairs of chromosomes

homozygous

identical alles for a trait

AA, BB, bb, etc

heterozygous

two different alleles for a trait

sometimes only one allele is expressed

AO blood type, Bb, Aa, etc

dominant

allele that completely masks or hides the presence of the other allele

one copy dominant and one copy recessive → only dominant will be expressed

recessive

allele not expressed in presence if dominant allele

only will be expressed if no dominant allele is present

genotype

genetic makeup or type of genes an individual has for a particular trait

phenotype

ways in which genes are visibly expressed

X-linked recessive inheritance

a genetic pattern where a mutated gene on the X chromosome causes a condition, predominantly affecting males, due to males only possessing one X chromosome

if girl expresses an x-linked recessive trait, so does her father

for girls, mother must be either afflicted or a carrier and father must be afflicted to receive

X-linked dominant inheritance

if boy expresses a X-linked dominant trait, so does his mother

if a man expresses X-linked dominant trait, so does will all daughters

boys will only inherit from mothers

autosomal recessive inheritance

child can still express an autosomal receive trait even if neither parent expresses it (carriers)

two copies of recessive alleles

genetic mechanism where a trait or disorder manifests only when an individual inherits two mutated copies of a gene, one from each paren

autosomal dominant inheritance

needs only 1 copy of a dominant trait to express

child expresses an autosomal dominate trait, either one or both parents must also express the trait

a genetic pattern where a trait or disorder manifests if an individual inherits only one copy of a mutated gene from either parent

Purposes for DNA extracting

genetic testing

diagnose disease and disorders

identify human remains

analyze crime scene evidence

paternity testing

match organ donors and recipients

make copies of genes that are useful in producing antibodies

materials for dna extraction

blender separates cells from each other and break open surrounding cell walls

detergent breaks up phospholipids membranes around cell and nucleus and release dna

salt predicates dna out of solution so it is visible

meat tenderizer removes proteins allowing dna to operate and unwind

heat destroys or denature enzymes that break down dna and rupture membrane

ice bath slows breakdowns of dna while allowing cell membranes and protein to continue breaking down

filter paper traps proteins that have precipitated but allow dna to pass through

ethanol allows all components expect dna to mix

surface area:volume ratio

smaller = faster diffusion, bigger = slower diffusion

if ratio is smaller, cells can get oxygen and nutrients and excrete waste faster

dna replication

before cell divides, cell makes a copy of itself

double helix unwinds, unzipping down the middle, and new nucleotides pair up

nucleotide pairing

adenine and thymine

cytosine and guanine

genetic notation

indicates total number of chromosomes present, sex chromosomes, and abnormalities

order: number of chromosomes, sex chromosomes, and extra or missing chromosomes

sickle cell anemia

genetic disorder

must have 2 copies to have the disorder

causes body to make abnormal red blood cells “sickling” clogging bloodstream, blocking oxygen flow, and damage organs

% of identical DNA across species

99%

why dont single celled organisms grow larger

limitations in surface area:volume

as cells increase in size, its volume (needs) grows faster than surface area (supply), printing nutrient uptake