POSC 225 -- Exam 2 Martin Cohen Study Guide

Edmund Burke (1740s) Definition of Political Party

- was a fan of political parties; positive definition

- "men united, promoting by their joint endeavors the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed"

- promoting national interest; shows he is a fan of political parties

James Madison (1780s) Definition of Political Party

- not a fan of political parties

- "a faction, whether amounting to a majority or minority... united and actuated by some common impulse... adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interest of the community"

- United: similar to Burke, but different in the effects of a party

E.E. Schattschneider (1942) Definition of Political Party

- "...organized attempt to get control of the government"

- Organized: introduced to lexicon

- Goal: to get control of the government

- was a fan of strong political parties, but his definition does not show this; his definition shows a mutual attitude

Anthony Downs (1957) Definition of Political Party

- "... a coalition of men seeking to control the governing apparatus by legal means"

- Coalition: group of individuals who have certain ends in common and cooperate to achieve those ends

- Coalition: new word to lexicon

V. O. Key (1964) Definition of Political Party

- conceived of parties as three legged stool... "PIE, PIG, PO"

- shows three parts of political party

PIE

Party in the Electorate -- consists of voters and those who identify with a political party, psychological attachment and will often vote for those party candidates

PIG

Party in Government -- government position holders (elected officials) who run under party label and try to get policies passed for said party

PO

Party Organization -- consists of party workers, staff members, and committees; tries to get the candidates elected from their party

John Aldrich (1996) Definition of Political Party

- "... an endogenous institution -- an institution by these political actors... It is ambitious politicians' creation"

- elected officials create, and mutate parties in order to get re-elected

- decisions are made by the party in itself

Tom Schwartz (1996) Definition of Political Party

- "... a long coalition"

- long (over a series of issues and over a period of time)

- party is not just an agreement to vote together on single bill, but an agreement to vote on hundreds of bills together over long periods of time

Functions of a Political Party

- aggregating societal interests

- compromising competing demands

- recruiting leadership

- nominating candidates

- contesting elections

- seeking to organize government

Aggregating Societal Interest

- adding up interests of individuals, putting them together

- they decide what they will talk about via agenda setting

- party platforms distributed to the nation every 4 years at national convention to nominate president

- platform: list of issue positions and decides what the party will stand for and how much emphasis each issue will get

Compromising Competing Demands

- need to appeal to a majority on an issue to obtain control of the government

- need to create coalitions (groups of groups) in order to win majorities, if they cast to narrow of a net on one or two interests (third parties) they will not win

- this is how they differ from interest groups, because those groups focus solely on one specific issue

- Party Coalition between different parties

Party Coalition

- The groups and interests that support a political party, or an action by a specific political party

New Deal Coalition

- Series of programs and policies put into law by the Democratic party and FDR in 1930s due to the Great Depression

- Democrats passed this to try to jump start the economy

- Several, very different groups involved except for wealthy Republicans who did not benefit from this

- Great example of compromising competing demands and aggregating societal interests to create a party with a large tent that attracted many voters to control the government

Recruiting Leadership

- Often go to those in local areas to run for office, and the parties will offer expertise and advice as to how to run and campaign

- need a bunch of people to run for thousands of office positions around the country to try to obtain as much power as possible

Nominating Candidates

- most important function of a political party

- nominations are really important because it takes around 10-20 candidates and brings it down to one, the party representative

- the party decides who gets to be the nominee

- those who control nominations control the party; Boss Tweed: "I only care about nominating"

- primary elections: take place within political parties (republicans vs. republicans) and not many people know they exist

- Nomination Politics: when the party gets together and they decide who they want to represent them on the ballot

- Binding Nominations: nomination that the party agrees on supporting whoever the person on the ballot is

- General Election: Republican v. Democrat

Nomination Politics

when the party gets together and they decide who they want to represent them on the ballot

Binding Nominations

nominations that the party agrees on supporting whoever the person on ballot is

General Election

Republican candidate v. Democratic candidate

Contesting Elections

- party is the best way to get people out to vote; package candidates that save money, resources, time

- spend money on TV ads, register voters, have name on ballad

- parties give a brand name to candidates; important because most just blindly vote for their party, regardless of who the candidates (party identification)

Seeking to Organize Government

- once elections are over

- parties will select leadership in Congress, the legislative will then work with the President

- pressure to vote with the party in congress because more legislation will get passed

How to solve ambition and elective office seaking

binding nominations (can't go independent) -- nomination that binds party to hold/stay with election of that party... candidates are bound by results, without this your party is vulnerable to defeat in general election

How to solve problem of making decisions from party to polity

attain policy majorities beneficial to politicians (win more often)

legislative in natute

how to solve problem of collective action

get enough supporters to vote for you; deals with free-riding problem

to win elections you must get people to vote for you

James Madison's Objections for Political Parties

- Federalist 10

- objected factions, and that large republic will save us by nominating best and the brightest and the large republic will hard to form factions

Constitutional Incentives for Parties to Form

- Separation of Powers; makes it extremely important for parties because they have to coordinate across various levels of government to get stuff done (horizontal cooperation)

- Federalism; requires vertical cooperation (local, state, federal) and parties are the best way to coordinate action

Why do parties form?

According to Aldrich, politicians create and refine and reform parties to win elections and govern effectively; endogenous institutions means no one imposed them on politicians, but the politicians themselves bring them up and change them as they feel need

What problems to political parties solve (three reasons why political parties formed)

- Ambition and elective office-seeking; helping those seek office and those that are looking to get re-elected

- Making decisions for the party and the polity (electorate); to win and pass legislation

- Collective action; one of free riding having to do with the act of voting, how do we get people to vote for our candidates

Examples when Binding Elections Did Not Happen

- 2006 Senate Election; Joe Lieberman was incumbent and was well known, but was pro-Iraqi war, so the Democrats welcomed another challenger named Ned Lemant... Lemant won primary election, so Lieberman ran as independent and ended up winning the general election of the Senate, this proved awkwardness and tension because he would vote with Republicans on foreign affairs and other topics

Why does coordination work?

the nigher the number of people, the better the benefit

- this is a reason why parties form... to win majorities and to have power

Working Together to Pass Bills/Legislation

- by working together to pass bills and get a majority, depending on the amount of people voting, you and your constituents can both benefit

- who you cooperate with depends on who gains the most benefit, and who losses the most

Why is it not rational to vote?

- if you vote, your vote counts for less (1/amount of people voting)

- cost benefit analysis

- Costs: time, and what else you could be doing with it... money to get to polls (gas)... having to pay for an ID to vote... shows voters hardly have any incentives, so parties work to give them more incentives

- Benefits: psychic benefits mostly; feels good and that you are making a difference

Calculus of Voting

R = PB + D - C

R = reward or penalty from casting a vote

B = benefit one gets from having their candidate win; could be very big

D = psychic benefit derived simply from voting

C = costs of voting

P = probability that one's vote will make a difference

- Usually left with D - C, and if it is positive than you will vote

How do parties increase benefits of voting?

giving inspiring speeches, saying "people died to have this right", "Your vote matters", or make them feel guilt for not voting

How do parties decrease the costs of voting?

provide rides to polls, absentee ballots and help filing one, EX: democratic parties used to offer shots of whiskey

How do parties provide economies of scale?

meaning that they can do something once for multiple, multiple candidates

- EX: lawn signs that has multiple party candidates on them

- this is why parties are good at what they do; efficiencyu

What else do parties do for voters?

they provide a brand name for voters and candidates, making it easy to vote via shortcuts; "Oh, I usually vote Republican so lemme just vote for this Republican candidate

Voting

- feels good

- letting voice be heard

- easiest way to voice your opinion

- as a group, you can make a difference... voting is one thing, but getting your friends to vote with you is another thing

- if you do not make a change in the outcome, you can still make a change in the margin

Why did parties form in the first place?

- Hamilton was secretary of treasury under Washington

- He developed a plan to aid merchants and manufacturers in New England. Looked to congress and wanted to form a coalition to pass policies. He was first on the ball and was able to gain a majority.

- Madison, Jefferson

- Argued Hamilton's plan would hurt other works, like farmers and tradesmen, but were outplayed by Hamilton, so went to electorates for people to run to defeat Federalists and a member of Democratic-Republican Party... trying to outplay an overrule those in Congress; Jefferson ended up beating Andrew Jackson

Why two political parties?

- Our electoral system is single member district, and whoever wins in that district wins. So when you get two major parties, there is little incentive to join 3rd party

- Although there are still minor parties

Benefits of Minor Parties

you can get support for an issue you believe in, and with that support that another major party will pick it up and make it apart of their platform as a way to gain more voters overall

Why not just a one party system?

- too many people to split the pot with, and too many people would run and create havoc over who to vote for

Amount of Major Parties throughout history

6

Amount of major parties we have had simutaneously

2

How many political parties have we had throughout history

1500

1800 Election

notable because it was the first real peaceful transfer of power; Thomas Jefferson beat incumbent John Adams

First Party System

The original party structure in which political parties were loose caucuses of political notables in various locations. It was replaced around 1824.

Democratic-Republicans slowly begin to dominate politics in both congress/presidential elections

battled issue of economic and regional conflict

Second Party System

1826-1824

- Simmering tension over slavery

- Andrew Jackson -- state's rights advocate (Democrat)

- John Quincy Adams formed Whig Party and began as a party that hated Andrew Jackson

- Main Argument: use of national government to foster economic development

- Both parties had interests in not dealing with slavery because it would break up their party (both parties had northern and southern backers)

- Know Nothing Party: 3rd party strictly based on anti-immigrant feelings

- Party Identification begins here

- Spoils System under Andrew Jackson: help me get elected and I will give you a job in the government

Third Party System

1860-1892. Republican dominance (against slavery) putting union back together

- Slavery --> War --> Reconstruction. Democrats and Republicans

- Dred Scott Case

- Whigs fell apart over slavery (pro-slavery Whigs became democrats and anti-slavery Whigs became Republicans)

- After the way, Democrats were disenfranchised in elections because affiliation with Confederacy, so they could not get right back into politics

- Sectionalism, or Regionalism dominated during this time (where you were showed who you voted for)

- Protestants mostly Republican

- Catholics/Jews mostly Democrats

- Party bosses pop up in big cities; parties are now seen as more and more corrupt and new regulations were to follow

Fourth Party System

New party system that emerged in 1896 after the McKinley/Bryan election; marked the end of a large scale effort to gain agrarian votes, diminished voter participation, weakening of party organization, & fading issues of $ & civil service reform

- Republicans ascended during era until Great Depression

- Realignment of Republicans followed by Depression

Fifth Party System

1932-1964. Democratic dominance under FDR. Grand coalition of urban dwellers, labor unions, Catholics, Jews, poor, South, blacks and farmers ( New Deal Coalition )

New Deal Coalition

- party groups that came together under the Democratic party (pretty much everyone came together but the rich)

- people praised FDR because only president to win more than 2 terms (won all 4)

Reforms of the Fourth System

Secret Ballot, Civil Service Reform, Primary Elections

Secret ballot / Australian ballot

weakens the parties because you cannot intimidate or promise something to a person for voting for their party because they cannot see who everyone voted for

Direct Election of Senators

State legislatures used to elect Senators, but now because of the 17th amendment the people can elect them directly (fourth system reform)

Civil Service Reform

Congress took action in the late 19th century to protect ethical politicians and create standards for political service; including, a civil service test for those seeking a job in government.

- got rid of spoils system

Primary Elections

ability of people to decide who will get the nominations and not the party elites

- used to empower and make the people more in charge

Raiding Primaries

when people of different political parties will go vote for someone of a different party to sneakily try to get the worst candidate elected

1928 Election

notable because Democrats nominated Al Smith, the first Catholic to be nominated for President (lost because most likely he was Catholic)

Al Smith

- First Catholic to ever be nominated for president

- KKK would burn crosses at Al Smith's events

1960

first catholic president was JFK

Urban-Rural Divide

division between those living in cities and those living in rural areas

- Cities are very democratic regardless of where they are

- Countryside very republic

- because of economic, moral, and racial reasons

1933 Mid-Term Election

Republicans got hammered because they controlled the Presidency and House during the Great Depression, gave rise to FDR

Sixth Party System

1968-present. Era of divided government

- collapse of the New Deal Coalition cause the new system

- White southerns left Democratic party and became Republicans

- South solidly Republican now after being mainly Democratic for a century

- Increased party polarization during this time and increased movement for moral things (abortion, prayer in schools) and these issues changed American politics

Electoral College

group of electors that cast their vote based on what their state said, actually took some power away from the people's right to elect President

Pluralists

advocated for pluralism; study of competition of interests/diversity of interests; where in favor of interest groups and thought it was helpful for democracy

Types of Incentives for Interest Groups

- Material (shirts, bumper stickers, etc.)

- Solidary (companionship and sense of belonging)

- Purposive (ethical beliefs)

How do elections solve delegation (principle-agent) problem

1. Elections give ordinary citizens a say in who represents them , so hopefully they choose wise

2. Prospect of future elections makes office holders stay true to what they said

- they can fire agents when performance falls short of expectations

3. Elections give those who want to replace office holders and incentive to monitor them and let the public know when they are not doing as they said they would

For the representative democracy to work and the delegation problem to be mitigated, the elections must be

1. Regular (continuous)

2. Free and fair

3. Competitive

When did all white men get the right to vote regardless of property qualifications?

1940s through the gradual triumph of Jacksonian democracy

African-American history of voting privileges

13th Amendment freed slaves

14th Amendment gave slaves citizenship

15th Amendment gave slaves right to vote

- Ability to vote was realized for roughly a decade until Reconstruction ends, then they were once again disenfranchised by restrictions like poll tax, literacy test, grandfather clause (if your grandad could not vote you can not either)

15th Amendment

gave slaves the right to vote

Voting Rights Act of 1865

Eliminated literacy tests and established federal examiners of polling stations. Led to triple in voter turnout for African-Americans

Women History of Voting Rights

- 19th Amendment granted them right to vote

- Once south disenfranchised blacks, they were also against women's suffrage but slowly at state and local level mostly women, some men, agitated for this and people got on board eventually. Only southern democrats held out till very end when the party was split between southern (all white, some racist males) and northern

26th Amendment

Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18; came about after Vietnam War... "if we are old enough to fight in wars, then we should have a say in the government that is sending us there"

Individual Factors of Voter Turnout

- Age

- Older you are, the more likely you are to vote

- Income

- Higher income, more likely to vote

- Education

- Higher education, more likely to vote

- Gender

- Does not matter... men and women vote at roughly the same rates... but what party you vote for has a gap

Institutional Factors of Voter Turnout

- If you are contacted by a party, it increases your chances of voting by 8% because it gives you a sense of them caring and parties do this to try to solve free-riding problem

- Registration

- How easy it is to register matters

- Early Registration Date: less likely to register and vote because it takes planning and forethought

Public Opinion on Different Issue Dimensions

Economic Issues

- How much should the rich be taxed, how far the government should go to monitor and regulate business, etc.

Foreign Policy Issues

- Americans are fairly uneducated on this because they are happening in a different part of the world

- When there is a war, people pay more attention to foreign policy

Racial/Ethnic Issues

- immigration, policy brutality, very divisive

Moral/Cultural Issues

- most controversial

- most of the important issues in our country's past

- good vs. evil, right vs. wrong

- divide amonst religious lines, hard to compromise

Rally Around the Flag Effect

a spike in presidential popularity during international crises; when President starts or enters a way, Americans are more inclined to support them, but less likely as the war goes on and casualties and costs add up

General Criteria that Voters Tend to Follow When Voting

1. Passed performance or incumbency / retrospective voting

- those already in office has a record for voter to access

- makes their future moves predictable

- candidates can be hurt or helped on this depending on how they are assessed

2. Issue Positions/Policy Opinions

- Could vote on the stance of one issue

- Single-Issue Voter: Vote for candidate that is more pro-life, EX

- must pick issue in which candidates have different viewpoints

3. Voter Cues/Shortcuts

Voter Cues/Shortcuts

- Endorsements; when a group or person says "I support this candidate for office"

- candidates want endorsements because they can gain voters, serves as a cute to voters saying that this person is going to vote as you want, promise of resources (money and support from constituents), not all endorsements are good

- Party Identification: which is what most people use to vote, as in most people vote for their parties depending on how much they lean left or right

- best predictor of presidential vote, shows that the parties stand for something and that they have a brand name... something for voters to crutch upon is we do now know anything about candidates

What are Congressional Elections About

- Candidates

- Messages

- Money

Candidates in Congressional Elections

- candidate recruitment and getting quality candidates is key to a party's fortune

What makes a good candidate?

- honest, trustworthy -- but these are hard to quantify

- what most parties look for in a congressional candidate: someone who has both run and been successful in office, that being a lower office

- best predictor of future is the past

- they are hard to come by, hard to convince a state legislator to run for House, especially against an incumbent

Messages in Congressional Elections

- the answer to "why should you vote for this candidate"

- they are honed through marketing research and polling numbers

- causes people to complain that candidates do not seem authentic because they have too many handlers telling them what to say, what not to say, and how to say it

- often time they are negative

- not really 'vote for me' but rather 'do not vote for them'

Money in Congressional Elections

- extremely important in congressional elections, much more important than in presidential elections because money in congressional elections is not as fairly distributed

- incumbents have more money, and challengers rarely have enough money to compete

Why money is a major problem in our system

- most money that finances campaigns is private money, which is money from individuals and groups that are increasingly less regulated

- democracy demands political equality (1 person, 1 vote)

- some people who vote have a lot more money that might be able to influence a politician or campaign, so political equality is out of the window.... money buys access to talk to candidate

Citizens United Case (2010)

- Supreme Court rules that speech = money

- Limits on corporate or union donations are unconstitutional; opened floodgates to allow unions to eliminate other candidates

Deadlocked Federal Election Commission

- has been this way for three years

- By rule, 3 democrats and 3 republicans are on the board... so as a result, nothing gets done or investigated because the vote is always 3 to 3

Data

amount of spending has increased for all candidates, but especially for incumbents and those that are in open seat races

When will incumbents spend money on elections?

only when they have to, this explains the top, solid line in the Opposite Effects of Campaign Spending graph

Political Action Committee (PAC)

A committee set up by a corporation, labor union, or interest group that raises and spends campaign money from voluntary donations

Electoral College of 2016 Map

- shows regionalism in the United States, also that Clinton won more votes, although she lost the vast majority of states

Party Identification Graph

correlation between what party you identify as and what candidate you will vote for is very high, roughly r = .7

African-Americans Graph

-huge gap between whites (republicans) and blacks (democrats) and who they vote for

- 1964 both races tended to vote more democrat

- shows race is a very strong indicator of presidential vote

Gender Gap Graph

- first appeared in 1970s but its size has varied

- not a large gap, but it is a gap that has been consistent

- women are more likely to vote democratic

- men are more likely to vote republican

Income Graph

- the poor have become less and less likely to vote Republican because of policies

- gap has been increasing over the years, especially recently

Education Graph

- democrats have gained among the most and least educated

- not the most strong indicator

- education is leaning people toward democratic side besides the income factor; more about policies regarding social life

Religion Graph

- Jews are only second to blacks in support of Democrats

- Catholics are now almost as Republican as Protestants

- Rise of Jewish voters for Republican in 2012 was because Obama did not have a good relationship with Prime Minister of Israel

- Clinton won those with no religion by 42 points

- emphasis not necessary on religion, but HOW religious are you