Practical Research for Periodical Exam

Research Design

Locale of the Study

Research Participants and Informants

Research Instruments

Data Collection Procedure

Ethics

Parts of the Methodology

Research Design

Is it descriptive, phenomenological, case, ethnographic research? Define it. (w/ citation)

- 2 paragraphs

Locale of the Study

Where and when will the study take place? - semester, school year

1 paragraph

Research Participants and Informants

The professionals and participants in your study

Who are they → describe them →

sampling design w/ citation → why this

s.design? w/ citation

- 4 paragraphs

Research Instruments

Where did u get the instrument → what instrument (interview, FGD, observation, etc.) → what are the exact qstns - 2 paragraph

Data Collection Procedure

Who will administer the instrument?

- When will you administer? Where will you

administer?

- How will you go through the step-by-step

process?

- How will you conduct the data collection

- Face-to-face interview, consent forms

Ethics

Morals that need to be followed→ why do you need these particular ethics → did you include consent and assent forms?

➢ What do I want to know?

➢ Why do I want to know it?

How much data will I need

➢ How will I collect my data

How will I analyze my data in order to answer my questions?

GUIDE QUESTIONS in writing the Methodo

Case Study

studies a person, place, or event in a defined time frame (Leedy & Omrod, 2001)

researcher spends time in the natural setting

lessons learned and patterns found

that connect with theories

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

requires extensive time in the participant's natural setting

Studies people that share a common culture

(Leedy and Omrod, 2001).

Studies an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period by collecting observational data (Creswell, 2003).

Provide evidence of the group's shared culture that developed over time

PHENOMENOLOGY

underlying meaning of the research participant's experience (Creswell 1998)

understand an experience from the research participant's POV (Leedy & Omrod, 2001)

- Focus is on the research participant

DESCRIPTIVE

The goal is a comprehensive summarization, in everyday terms, of specific events experienced by individuals or groups of individuals

are the least "theoretical" of all of the qualitative approaches to research.

the least encumbered studies.

- tend to draw from naturalistic inquiry, which purports a commitment to studying something in its natural state to the extent that is possible within the context of the research arena.

a categorical, as opposed to a

non-categorical, alternative for inquiry;

● is less interpretive than an 'interpretive

description' approach because it does

not require the researcher to move as

far from or into the data; and,

● does not require a conceptual or highly

abstract rendering of the data,

compared to other qualitative designs.

According to Sandelowski (n.d.), qualitative descriptive research: should be seen as:

Data collection

focuses on discovering the nature of the specific events under study

straightforward descriptive summary of the informational contents of the data that is organized in a logical manner

resentation of data involves a?

Time of occurrence

● categories/subcategories

● Actual or reverse chronological order of

events

● Most prevalent to least prevalent themes

● moving from a broad context of an event

to a more narrow context (i.e. specific

cases);

● or, describing an event from the

perspective of more than one participant

data presentation can be arranged by:

★ Grounded Theory

★ Content and Discourse Analysis

Other qualitative rs designs:

SAMPLING

Means the size/no. of rs participants in ur study

Qualitative Sampling

enables us to get a representative sample, a small collection of units or cases from a much larger population so that the researcher can study the group meticulously and make generalizations abt larger groups (Neuman, 2017)

Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

2 types of sampling

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Qualitative; accessibility of participants.

Convenience Sampling

Snowball Sampling

Friendship Sampling

Quota Sampling

Judgemental Sampling

Convenience Samp.

Choosing respondents at the convenience of the researcher: Where you can have easy access

Snowballing

a recruitment technique in which research participants are asked to assist researchers in identifying other potential subjects.

Friendship pyramiding

participants help recruit other participants from their social circles, forming a "pyramid" of connections

Quota

Population has been divided into classes or categories Probability of being selected is known by the participant Members of the population selected are not disqualified from being included in the results Example: Surveying in order to obtain a desired

Judgmental

The researcher uses his own "expert" judgment Example: study of potential users of a new recreational facility

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Quantitative; statistical consideration.

Simple Random

Stratified

Cluster

Criterion

Homogenous Sampl

Maximum Variation

Deviant Case

Simple Random Sampling

Draw a list of all members of the population From the list, a sample is drawn to give equal chance of being drawn Computerized sampling programs or random number tables may be used to avoid bias

Stratified

Categorizing members of the population into mutually exclusive and collective exhaustive groups Example: Categorizing by Average Yearly Income of Street Vendors: The researcher may stratify them by barangays

Cluster

Groups are defined in order to maintain heterogeneity of the population Clusters are representative samples of the population as a whole After the clusters are established, a simple random sample of clusters is drawn and members of the chosen clusters are sampled Example: Measuring the age distribution of persons in a locality

Criterion

selection based on specific characteristics

Homogenous samp.

Selection of participants with the same experiences

Maximum

Variation

the objective is to obtain more in-depth views. Otherwise known as Total Enumeration

Deviant Case

Seeking cases that differ from the dominant pattern

- Interview

- Participant Observation

- FGD/Interview

- Observational Evaluation

- Biography/Autobiography

- Questionnaire

Primary Data Collection Techniques

INTERVIEW

Participants talk about their experiences,

point-of-views, feelings, beliefs.

They are personal and social.

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

❖ Researcher immerses himself in the natural

setting of the participant

❖ Natural setting: home, office, school, etc

❖ Immersion enables the researcher see,

hear, feel, & experience the participant's

daily life

❖ The researcher participates and observes

fully in the activities of the group without

them knowing he is a researcher

FGD/INTERVIEW

❖ Participated by 6 to 8 persons (usually the

research informants or consultants)

❖ ADV: Critical and sensitive issues can be

freely discussed

❖ Different views and perspectives are

expressed: a rich source of data

❖ Moderator/Researcher must be skilled in

facilitating group discussion and stay

focused on the topic

INTERVIEW

An instrument in gathering data

- Used in Qualitative Research for in-depth and

honest answers

- Conversation designed to obtain specific

informations

- The skill of the interviewer is necessary to

enable the interviewee to express his or her

thoughts clearly.

Interviewee & Interviewer

2 PERSONAS IN AN INTERVIEW

Tools and instruments

determine the validity and reliability of the findings

Heading

- for identification and formality

❖ Instructions to the Interviewee/Interviewer

- check grammar and tone

❖ Key research questions

❖ Probes to follow key questions

❖ Transition messages of the interviewer

❖ Space for recording interviewee's

answers and space for interviewer's

reflective notes

+ Signature of the proponents

COMPONENTS OF AN INTERVIEW Guide

Pre-interview Stage

Warm-up Stage

Main Interview Stage

Closing Stage

Stages of Interview

Pre-interview Stage

a. Interview guide is prepared

b. respondents are identified

c. Respondents are contacted.

Warm-up Stage

Questions that will make respondents

more at ease are asked.

- To establish rapport

Main Interview Stage

Main questions directly related to the research questions are asked. - Clarifications

Closing Interview Stage

Questions are asked to wind down the interviewee. - Thank you

1.) Before the interview, arrange your questions

logically to make the flow of the interview

smoother.

2. Begin by introducing yourself and the

purpose for the interview.

3. Tell the respondents that you will handle the

information with the utmost confidentiality

and care.

4. Have a warm-up stage to make the

respondents more comfortable. (EX: "How is

your day?")

5. Adjust your language.

6. Make the length of the interview reasonable.

7. Record the interview because you may need

to transcribe the gathered data. However,

make sure you get the approval of the

interviewee.

8. Always thank the respondents for their time.

GUIDELINES IN INTERVIEW

Unstructured (Free)

Semi Structured (Flexible)

Structured (Fixed)

TYPES OF INTERVIEW GUIDE

Unstructured

Free

- Research must be skilled and knowledgeable

about the topic

- Can be normal conversations or freewheeling

exchange of ideas

*Advantages

- Unlimited data

- Easy to craft

*Disadvantages

- Data overload

- Nawawala na sa tamang track or sa

mismong topic

- Hard to administer

2. Structured

Fixed questions

- Ask the interviewee for clarification of the

answer and not directly asking questions that

are not included in the questionnaire

- the conduct of questioning follows a

particular progression and has a

well-defined content

*Disadvantages

- Difficult to craft

*Advantages

- Easy to administer

Semi-Structured

Flexible

- follow -up questions are allowed

- researcher can gather additional data from a

respondent that may add depth and

significance to the findings

*Advantages

- Additional information

GROUP INTERVIEW

- are interviews conducted with several

respondents simultaneously, ideally 6 to 10

people.

Focus Groups

Natural Groups

2 TYPES OF GROUP INTERVIEW

Focus Groups

Participants in a focus group are selected by the researcher according to specific sampling criteria,

Natural Groups

The participants belong to a group that exists independently of the study,

TRANSCRIPTIONS

Is a translation between forms of data. In

the social sciences, this is most commonly

converting audio recordings to text format

High quality and consistent

What kind of transcriptions is needed

that matches the analytic and methodological

aims of the research is part of good data

management planning

Organize and prepare data for analysis

2) Read through ALL the data

3) Begin detailed analysis with coding

process

4) Use coding process to generate a

description of setting or of people as well

as categories or themes for analysis:

themes are major findings in QualRes

and are stated under separate headings

in the findings section of the study

5) Decide how the description and themes

will be represented

6.) Final step: analysis of data: "LESSONS

LEARNED

Generic Steps in Data Analysis (Creswell, 1998)

Process and record raw data immediately

● Start analyzing data being collected

★ Review data

★ Classify and code the data

★ Group data into themes and

patterns

● Data reduction

★ identify data that is useful to your

study

● Identify relevant themes and patterns

Reporting data arrange and report data

and decide on the format you will use.

Analyzing the Meaning of Qualitative Data

Infer

= is to derive by reasoning; conclude or

judge from premises or evidence.

= is to imply is to hint at something, but to

= is to make an educated guess. The

speaker does the implying, and the listener does

the inferring.

= deduce or conclude (information) from

evidence and reasoning rather than from explicit

statements

CODING

Way of indexing or categorizing the text in order to establish a framework of thematic ideas about it (Gibbs, 2007).

- In QualRes, coding is "how you define what the

data you are analyzing are about"

Therefore, coding is not just labeling; it is linking

of data to the research idea and back to other

data

DEDUCTIVE CODING

Also called concept-driven coding You start with a predefined set of codes, then assign those codes to the new qualitative data. Might come from previous research, or you might already know what themes you're interested in analyzing.

INDUCTIVE CODING

Also called open coding Starts from scratch and creates codes based on the qualitative data itself. You don't have a set codebook; all codes arise directly from the survey responses.

Core of QualRes analysis

● Two ways: Content Analysis and Thematic

Analysis

Identifying Meaningful Patterns and Themes

Patterns

Repeated form or design used to decorate

something that happens in a regular way

- matching lies at the heart of any attempt to

conduct thematic analyses and forms the

basis of generalizations across different

concepts or population subgroups

Themes

Generated when similar issues and ideas

expressed within qualitative data are

brought together by the researcher into a

single category or cluster.

Word Repetitions

Indigenous Categories

Key Words in Context (KWIC)

Compare and Contrast

Social Science Queries

Techniques to Identify Themes and Patterns

CONTENT ANALYSIS

Used when data collection was made through interviews, observations, documentary analysis, and FGD/interviews - Used to categorize a person's words, behavior, sorting, grouping, codifications, and tabulation

Basic Level

Higher Level

- 2 Levels of Codification

Basic Level

description of what the data is, specify what was said and no further comments or explanation on how or why it was said

Higher level

an interpretative analysis

that combines the specific responses as

well as what may have been inferred or

implied from the data. Interpretation of

what the data means

- Involves coding and analyzing the data

- Aim: make sense of the data and to make

inferences about the messages of findings

Prepare your Data

Determine the unit of analysis

Develop Categories and coding systems

Pre-test the coding system

Steps of C.A.

A form of pattern recognition within the data. It

provides a sample interpretation and concise

description of themes and patterns in the data

set

THEMATIC ANALYSIS

Familiarize yourself with your Data

Generate Initial Codes

Search for themes

Review the themes

Define and name the themes

Prepare the report

Steps in Thematic Analysis

LESSONS LEARNED

- Researcher's personal interpretations based on own experiences, culture, understanding - Meaning derived from a comparison of findings - Suggestions for new questions - No citation

DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

highlight and discuss how the findings of your study have reinforced what has already been done by other researchers. Establish clear links to literature review. - Study carefully how your research reflects or differs from existing knowledge. Compare your findings with results of other studies. Identify similarities and differences between your findings and existing findings. - Discuss the contribution of your findings

CONCLUSION

- A section in a research report that contains a comprehensive summary of the findings - Contains significant key terms and findings and implications - Elucidates on drawing and writing the conclusion on rs paper - Gives a final impression about your study - Gives a sense of completeness - BASIS: SOP

Conclusions are inferences

Conclusion should be appropriately

answer the specific questions

Conclusions should point out what were

factually learned from the inquiry

Conclusions should be formulated

concisely, that is, brief and short

CHARACTERISTICS OF A CONCLUSION

Stress the importance of the thesis

statement

2. Give the written work a sense of

completeness

3. Leave a final impression on the reader

4. Demonstrates good organization

Purposes of a Conclusion

Presents and discusses how they support

your findings and conclusions

- BASIS: Conclusion

RECOMMENDATION

Brief

Clear

Precise

How to write recommendations

Brief

write concisely; any reasons for recommendation should only be given if necessary.

Clear

Do not be ambiguous as to how the recommendation will be implemented

Precise

vague recommendations usually result from insufficient research/analysis

ABSTRACT

- 75 to 250 words and 6-7 sentences

Short summary of your completed

research

It is intended to describe your works w/o

going into great details

- Should be self-contained and concise,

explaining your work as briefly and

clearly as possible

- It contains keywords at the bottom

Let the readers get the gist/essence of

your paper in order to decide whether to

read the full paper

★ Prepares readers to follow the detailed

information, analysis and arguments in

your full paper

★ Helps readers remember key points on

your paper

PURPOSE of abstracr

Context

Central Questions

What's already known

reason, rationale, goal

methods

findings, results, implications

significance (Conclusion)

Information found in the abstract

Printed ICFS

Letters

Interview Documentations

Transcriptions

Coding

Curriculum Vitae

Evaluation Sheets

Additional Tables and Graphs

Sample of appendices