Prime Minister and the executive

Executive

A.K.A the government, collective name for the PM, cabinet, junior ministers, government departments and their staff

Roles of the executive

Proposing and passage of legislation

Proposing a budget

Developing home and foreign policy

Responding to crises

Organising services provided by the state

Structure of the executive

PM and close advisors

The cabinet (20-25 senior ministers the PM appoints)

Jr ministers (run a specific part of a dept.)

Govt departments (Treasury most important)

Sr civil servants (govt ministers, cabinet sec most senior)

Cabinet

20-25 senior ministers and other senior party figures (chief whip) whose meetings are chaired by the PM

Government department

A part of the executive with a specific responsibility over a policy area

Senior civil servants

Officials who give advice to ministers and implement ministers' decisions

Cabinet secretary

The most senior civil servant, advises the PM and the cabinet. They organise the work of cabinet and government

Main roles of the PM

De facto head of government

Government's chief policy maker

Nation's chief diplomat

Appoints the cabinet and chairs its meetings

Functions of the UK cabinet

Approve policy and settle disputes within government

Determine government's reaction to crises

Determine the presentation of government policy

Cabinet committees

Groups made by the MP to reduce burden on the full cabinet

Minister

An MP or a peer who takes a position in government, usually in a specific government department.

Roles of ministers (T.O.A.D)

Take decisions under secondary legislation powers

Organise the passage of legislation and speak in debates

Answer to parliament through questions and select comms

Draft legislation

Secondary legislation

Powers given to the Executive by Parliament to make changes to the law within certain specific rules.

Proposing legislation

Green paper published setting out possible course of action or set of policies

White paper published outlining specific details of proposed legislation which is usually debated

Party whips check if there is support for the legislation among governing party MPs

Legislation formally introduced to parliament

Secretary of State

Senior minister who runs a large department and is most likely to also be a cabinet member

Minister of state

Will run a subdivision of a department and will not be a cabinet member, a.k.a jr ministers

Parliamentary under secretary

A very junior minister who runs a specialised section of the department

Parliamentary private secretary

An MP who acts as a link between ministers and MPs

Individual ministerial responsibility

The principle that ,ministers are responsible for their personal conduct and the work of their department

2017 Followed by Patel after holding unofficial meetings with Israeli ministers

2020 Ignored by Patel after accusations of bullying

Four elements of individual ministerial responsibility

Ministers must be prepared to be accountable to parliament

If a minister makes a serious error of judgement (2018 Amber Rudd, regional removal targets for immigrants)

If a minister's department makes a serious error (2003 Estelle Morris over A-Levels and literacy and numeracy standards)

If a minister's conduct falls below the standards required of someone in public office (2017 Michael Fallon over inappropriate behaviour towards women)

Limits to individual ministerial responsibility

Increasingly, ministers are not taking responsibility for either policy failures of their departments or for their own errors of political judgement.

In some instances, ministers are no longer taking responsibility for failings in their personal conduct

Failure to accept responsibility: If a minister makes a serious error, they should resign.

2020 - Edu-sec Gavin Williamson approved Ofqual algorithm that downgraded A-level results for thousands of students.

Policy was eventually reversed, but the education

secretary stayed in post.

Failure to accept responsibility: Ministers should accept responsibility for errors or poor performance of their departments

2019 Transpo-sec Chris Grayling didn't resign after his department awarded a cross-channel ferry contract to a company that owned no ferries

Failure to accept responsibility: If a ministers personal conduct falls short of what is expected of an elected official, they should leave office.

2020 Home-sec Patel refused to resign over Cabinet Office Inquiry uncovered evidence of her bullying civil servants

Collective ministerial responsibility

Constitutional convention that ministers must support any government decisions in public regardless of private reservations - if they do not they should resign.

Why is collective ministerial responsibility important?

Government unity

Maintains PM dominance

Stifles dissidence

Protects individual ministers from public pressure

Ministers refusing to take collective ministerial responsibility

2003 Robin Cook, Labour, resigned due to opposing govt decision to invade Iraq

2020 Sajid Javid, Conservative, refused to accept replacement of his advisors with those chosen by the PM

2020 Lady Sugg, Conservative, disagreed with ending the commitment to spend 0.7% of the UK's budget on aid

Breakdown of collective ministerial responsibility: Coalition

2010-15 CMR abandoned for policies where there remained significant disagreement, (Renewal of Trident nuclear missile system)

Breakdown of collective ministerial responsibility: Specific issue dividing the cabinet

During May's term cabinet ministers openly criticised her for refusing to take 'no-deal' Brexit off the table and others called for a harder stance towards Europe

Breakdown of collective ministerial responsibility: Referendums

2016 - Five members of Cameron's cabinet campaigned to leave the EU but the rest campaigned to remain

Breakdown of collective ministerial responsibility: PM lacking authority

2017 Due to May's lack of majority cabinet said to be "plotting her downfall" from election night but none faced consequences

Powers of the PM (5 ps)

Patronage

Prerogative (royal)

Parliamentary majority

Party support

Personal mandate

Patronage

Power of appointment and dismissal

Patronage over ministerial offices promotes loyalty by those who are promoted or hope to be promoted

Payroll vote

Sr and Jr ministers who owe their position to the PM so can be relied upon to vote in favour of government legislation

Constraints on patronage: The prime minister often has to satisfy the

various factions within their political party.

Thatcher initially was forced into appointing the 'Wets', moderates who disagreed with her New Right agenda.

Constraints on patronage: It is safer to have potential rivals in cabinet bound under CMS

Both Cameron and May felt it was safer to have Boris Johnson in their cabinets than as a backbench MP.

Constraints on patronage: Type of government

Coalition: The prime minister is forced to promote MPs from the junior coalition partner. Cameron agreed to appoint five Lib Dems to cabinet.

Weak majority/hung: Theresa May had to promote prominent 'Brexiteers', including Johnson, Liam Fox and David Davis, to senior positions.

Royal prerogative

Unwritten powers passed from the monarch to the PM, typically do not require approval from parliament allowing the PM to act independently.

Constraints on patronage: Ministers may refuse a job

Theresa May's attempts to reshuffle unfavourable ministers seriously backfired in January 2018 when Jeremy Hunt refused to move from his post as health secretary.

What does the royal prerogative allow the PM to do?

PM considered the de facto commander-in-chief of the armed forces. (2018 May authorised bombing of Syria w/o commons vote)

PM effectively chief diplomat due to negotiation and treaty signing abilities (Successive PMs take the lead in negotiating relationship with the EU - Starmer refused to tie defense pact to fishing quotas)

PM huge influence on when to call the election, can choose desirable circumstances (1983 Thatcher after the Falklands War)

Recent limits to the royal prerogative

Now accepted that the PM should only take military action on the advice and sanction of parliament (Precedent set in the vote on the Iraq war)

Treaties approved by Parliament can only be undone by Parliament (confirmed by the UK Supreme Court's decisions relating to Brexit)

Fixed Term Parliaments Act WAS a check on ability to call elections but repealed in 2022 (Johnson blocked from calling early election in 2019)

PMs with commons majorities

After 1997 and 2001 landslide victories, Blair faced zero defeats in the Commons between 1997-2005

After winning a majority in 2015, Tories were able to pass legislation they were unable to during coalition, notably paving the way for a Brexit referendum

Starmer has huge majority, yet to face any defeats (April 2025)

PMs without large commons majorities

2005 general election Blair's majority halved resulting in his first defeat in 2006 on terror suspect detainment

2015 small commons majority led to Tories losing a vote on loosening Sunday trading laws in 2016

2017 May unable to implement Brexit legislation successfully due to no majority, faced biggest Commons defeat of any British PM in Jan 2019

Examples of party support for PMs

Despite Gordon Brown's unpopularity 2007-2010, no Labour MP made an official attempt to hold leadership contest

Despite Brexit divides in Tory Party, only one Tory MP voted against triggering Article 50

Johnson cut remain-voting MP whip in 2019 general elec, replaced with brexiteers, 2020 no Tory MPs voted against EU Withdrawal Act

Examples for when PMs have lacked party support

Few MPs would actually energetically defend Brown in the press

May accepted she would resign after brexit process complete after vote of no confidence in 2018

Johnson's Conservative party very divided due to clashes between neo-liberals and Conservatives in traditional 'red wall' seats

Personal mandate

Individual authority claimed by PMs to steer policy direction of gov, as a result of their popularity, recent election victories and personal attributes.

PMs able to claim a personal mandate

Blair's skyrocketing approval in early years of premiership gave greater authority to enact controversial public-sector reforms that were opposed by many within his own party.

Cameron consistently polled more favourably than his own party- introduced personal policies like Big Society programme and National Citizen Service.

PMs that struggled to claim a personal mandate

Brown succeeded Blair without leadership contest or a general election, limiting his legitimacy to the public

May accused of lacking empathy after not visiting residents of Grenfell Tower in 2017

Cabinet government

A system of government where the cabinet is the central policy-making body.

Primus inter pares

'First among equals' - applied to the PM, seen as the most important member of the cabinet but not one who is

domineering

Prime ministerial government

Political circumstances in which the prime minister dominates policy making and the whole machinery of government.

Role of the cabinet in policy formulation

The cabinet often sets out the government's general principles over what legislation should contain.

Elsewhere: detailed work on individual policy carried out in smaller groups. Ban on smoking in pubs debated in cabinet, but wording of text drafted by the Department of Health.

Role of the cabinet in dealing with crisis

Meets during difficult periods, a 'show of unity' and to agree a way forward. After Black Wednesday (when interest rates rocketed in 1992), cabinet met to agree economic policy.

Elsewhere: PM relies on COBR, during Iraq Blair relies on few ministers

Role of the cabinet in controlling parliamentary agenda

The cabinet can be the forum whereby ministers compete to win parliamentary time for the legislation their departments wish to pass.

Decisions made elsewhere (During coalition decisions made in 'the quad'

Role of the cabinet in approving decisions made elsewhere

Cabinet is 'endorsing body', approves policies formulated elsewhere

Elsewhere: PM establishes cabinet committees that may decide on policy (Johnson created various Covid-19 comms)

Role of the cabinet in settling disputes

Cabinet allows Secstate to advocate for their policy positions and compromise where necessary. (Decision to scrap Educational Maintenance Allowance for 6th form students scrapped only after LibDem cabinet members secured funds for its replacement)

Most disputes solved elsewhere w/ bilateral/individual meetings between cabinet members and the PM (2017 May and chancellor Hammond tense discussions on whether to scrap planned rise in NI tax)

Circumstances affecting the power of the cabinet

Size of majority (Blair and Brown announced Bank of England independence w/o consulting cabinet with knowledge of BB support)

Prime Ministerial preference (PMs may cajole cabinet members or secretly make decisions with advisors, May had Hill and Timothy write large parts of the 2017 manifesto instead of discussing w/ cabinet)

Characters within cabinet (PMs use patronage to ensure cabinet is loyal, Johnson only promoted MPs who agreed with Brexit policy)

The issue and its importance (Cabinet more likely to be consulted when decisions are difficult, Brown's scrapping of 10p tax band rate discussed at length after cabinet members threatened to resign)

How are presidential and parliamentary governments different?

Presidential means the executive and the legislature are separate and the leader is elected separately, in parliamentary government the executive branch draws legitimacy and is held accountable to the legislature.

PMs seek to act as president

PMs seek to create strategic space between them and their party (Cameron painted himself as a 'moderniser' seeking to reform the Tories with progressive policies like legalising gay marriage)

PMs increasingly reliant on personal advisors much like a president (Johnson allowed Cummings huge influence over the machinery of government)

PMs seek to act independently to parliament in foreign affairs much like a president (2018 May's use of royal prerogative in Syria bombings)

There are limits to PMs seeking to act as president

Spatial leadership impossible due to fusion of powers, Pms 'reined in' by forces of constraint (2019 May lost control of the 'payroll vote', jr ministers voted with their conscience on Brexit)

Over-reliance on advisors damages the credibility of the PM (May forced to sack senior advisors Timothy and Hill after poor reception of 2017 manifesto)

Parliament much more assertive on foreign affairs since the Iraq War (2013 Cameron failed to convince parliament to vote in favour of military action against Assad in Syria)

Spatial leadership

PM's attempting to distance themselves from their party or 'taking on' institutions like their cabinet/party to be 'above' politics as the nations leader.