Paper 1 - Biological Approach - Ethical considerations in Animal Research (HL)

Why animals are used in research

- They are similar to use both genetically and physiologically - so are good for drug testing.

- They breed faster than humans so several generations can be observed over a short period.

- They age faster, so change over time can be observed - for example, the effect of childhood stress on ageing rats.

- They can be used for procedures that would be considered unethical for humans (e.g. isolation).

Why we shouldn't use animals

- Similarities may be insufficient to generalise to humans.

- Procedures deemed unethical for humans may cause similar suffering in animals.

- Animals cannot communicate their distress, cannot withdraw from the experiment, and give no consent.

Ethical considerations

Include:

- Do the ends justify the means of the research?

- Research should be undertaken with a clear scientific purpose.

- The smallest number of animals sufficient to accomplish the research goals' should be used in any study.

- The cost and benefits of any study must be carefully evaluated.

- The welfare of the animal must be taken into account and researchers must seek to minimize any pain, suffering or distress that may arise from any experiment.

- Researchers should use alternatives to animal research whenever possible, including data collected by other researchers, lower species (e.g. leeches, cell cultures) or computer simulations.

Moral guidelines

In evaluating the value of an experiment vs the harm caused to an animal during an experiment, researchers must consider:

- The number of humans who would benefit from the study.

- The effect of humans if the study is not conducted.

- The number of animals suffering in the experiment.

- The harm done to the animals.

Problems: It is hard to compare the value of an animal to a human, we do not know the complete benefit of the experiment in advance.

The 3 R's

Set of principles that psychologists and other scientists are encouraged to follow, clarifying the moral guidelines.

Replacement

Reducing or eliminating the use of animals in experiments by substituting them with alternatives that do not involved live animals or involve animals with a lower capacity for suffering.

Use of non-animal models

Computer simulations: Programs like Sniffy the Virtual Rat are designed to replicate animal behaviour and learning processes.

In vitro studies: Use cell cultures/tissues from human/animal sources can replicate biological processes, providing valuable data without involving whole living organisms.

Replacement with lesser species

In cases where some form of biological testing is unavoidable, researchers may use organisms with simpler nervous systems and lower capacity for suffering (e.g. amoebae, nematode or fruit flies).

Challenges of implementing replacement methods in animal research

Non-animal models can't fully replicate complex interactions within living organisms.

Reduction

Minimizing the number of animals used in scientific research while ensuring the quality and validity of the data collected.

Maximizing data collection from each animal

Designing experiments that allow multiple outcomes or measurements from a single animal reduces redundance and the need for additional subjects.

Microsampling: taking small, repeated samples (e.g. of blood or tissue) from a single animal can reduce the total number of animals needed while still obtaining comprehensive data.

Longitudinal studies: tracking the same animal over time instead of using separate groups for each time point.

Use of modern imaging and monitoring techniques

Technologies like MRI or PET scans can provide detailed insights without requiring multiple invasive procedures or animal groups.

Challenges of implementing reduction

Ensuring the number of animals used to produce statistically reliable and meaningful results.

Refinement

Improving the welfare of animals while maintaining the validity and reliability of experimental outcomes.

Improving housing conditions

Provide environments that allow species specific behaviors, such as the use of nesting materials, toys, or climbing structures. This reduces stress and supports both physical or psychological well-being.

Minimizing pain and distress

Administering appropriate anaesthetics, analgesics, and sedatives during procedures.

Training for cooperation

Training animals to voluntarily participte in procedures (e.g. blood draws or injections) reduces the need for physical restraint and lowers stress levels.

Challenges of implementing refinement

Some studies require stress inducing conditions, complicating the integration of refinement techniques.

Enriched housing and specialized training for animals are often expensive and time consuming, limiting accessibility for smaller labs.

Cost-benefit analysis

Researchers must weight the potential benefits of the research against the ethical and welfare costs to animals.

1. Evaluate benefits and risks.

2. Contribution beyond medical treatments.

3. Ethical alternatives to laboratory experiments.

4. Limitations of current animal models.

Brain and Behaviour: Rogers and Kesner

Replacement: Live rats were used to explore memory formation in the hippocampus. This choice was justified as the study required examining biological and neurological processes that are challenging to replicate using non animal methods like computer simulations or in vitro models. However, human based alternatives (e.g. fMRI studies on volunteers) could have provided relevant insights without using animals.

Reduction: A relatively small sample size (30 rats) was used, with random allocation to conditions ensuring robust statistical power. Repeated trials with the same rats reduced the need for additional subjects.

Refinement: The rats were acclimatized to the maze, reducing stress and fear. The use of saline injections as a placebo ensured equal treatment across groups, reducing confounding variables to injection stress. However, the direct hippocampal injection procedure was invasive, potentially causing distress or pain. Less invasive methods (e.g. systematic drug delivery) might have reduced animal suffering while yielding similar insights.

Brain and Behaviour: Prevot et al

Replacement: Prevot used live mice because they allow for the study of chronic stress related cognitive impairements in a biological way that alternatives (e.g. computer models or in vitro) cannot stimulate.

Reduction: The study did not follow reduction as they used a large sample of over 30 mice, when they could have reduced this to fewer mice and potentially used microsampling to minimise the number of animals exposed to potential harm. However, the Y-maze testing provided multiple trials per animal, maximizing the amount of data collected from each mouse without needing to increase the sample size.

Refinement: The researchers ensured appropriate handling of the animals and provided suitable housing and care, which helped to minimize stress. These measures were essential to maintain the validity of the results, as stress and poor conditions can influence animal behaviour and confound findings. Despite this, further efforts could have been made to refine the injection procedures, such as using less invasive emethods or providing post procedural care to minimize any distress caused by the injections.

Hormones and Behaviour: Meaney et al

Replacement: Computer models or cell cultures couldn't replicate the long term effects of maternal behavior on the endocrine or nervous system. The researchers therefore used live rats as they were necessary to study how early life experiences (like maternal licking or grooming) affect the development of the stress response system, especially glucorticoid receptor expression in the hippocampus and how that would then influence memory.

Reduction: The study did not follow reduction as due to the independent samples design, a higher number of rats will have been used. However, rats were tested longitudinally (up to 2 years old), allowing researchers to gain long term data from the same individuals, which maximized the data per animal.

Refinement: Rats in both groups were separated from their mothers briefly, but, the procedure was time limited and controlled to minimize distress. The water maze was non-invasive, however, to improve refinement, the researchers could have monitored animal welfare and ensured a clean environment - for example, by reducing the duration of water maze exposure or using temperature controlled water.

Hormones and Behaviour: Barr et al

Replacement: The study's investigation of genetic variation and stress responses could not have been conducted using cell cultures or computer models as the interaction between genes, social environment and stress responses cannot be accurately replicated. Infant monkeys were therefore necessary to study this, particularly as they are a species more closely related to humans. Alternatively, human studies (e.g. observational or longitudinal research) could be used to explore the interaction between environmental factors, genetic polymorphisms and stress responses, removing the need for animals.

Reduction: The study did not folllow reduction as the sample was relatively large (208 monkeys). Focusing on only acute stress responses (e.g. immediate hormonal changes after one separation) or only chronic responses (e.g. hormonal regulation over repeated separation) would have optimized the study design to use fewer monkeys while still ensuring valid and reliable results.

Refinement: Using less invasive blood sample methods (e.g automated sampling) could have reduced the need for physical restraint, lowering stress responses caused by handling and improving the monkey's welfare during hormone collection. Furthermore, switching to non-invasive techniques (e.g. salive sampling) would allow stress hormone measurement without pain or distress), leading to better treatment and more accurate readings by avoiding stress induced spikes from invasive procedures.