Development and Learning (AP)

Development

involves physical, cognitive, and social-emotional changes that occur across the lifespan.

Prenatal development

occurs from conception to birth and includes the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages

Infancy and toddlerhood

(birth to age 2) are marked by rapid physical growth, development of basic motor skills, and the formation of attachment relationships

Early childhood

(ages 2-6) is characterized by the development of language, social skills, and self-regulation

Middle childhood

(ages 6-11) involves the development of logical thinking, social comparison, and increased independence

Adolescence

(ages 11-18) is a period of significant physical, cognitive, and social-emotional changes, including puberty, abstract thinking, and identity formation

Early adulthood

(ages 18-40) is characterized by the establishment of intimate relationships, career development, and possibly parenthood

Middle adulthood

(ages 40-65) involves continued personal and professional growth, as well as potential challenges (midlife crisis, caring for aging parents)

Late adulthood

(ages 65+) is marked by retirement, reflection on life experiences, and adaptation to physical and cognitive changes associated with aging.

 Sensorimotor stage

(birth to age 2) involves the development of object permanence and basic problem-solving skills

 Preoperational stage

(ages 2-7) is characterized by the emergence of symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and animism

Concrete operational stage

(ages 7-11) involves the development of logical thinking, conservation, and reversibility

 Formal operational stage

(ages 11+) is marked by the ability to think abstractly, reason hypothetically, and consider multiple perspectives

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural tools in cognitive development

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

refers to the range of tasks a child can complete with guidance from a more skilled individual

Scaffolding

involves providing support and guidance to help a child master new skills and concepts

Information processing theory

compares the human mind to a computer, with attention, perception, memory, and problem-solving as key components

Metacognition

refers to the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes and strategies for learning and problem-solving

Attachment theory

developed by Bowlby and Ainsworth, emphasizes the importance of early caregiver-infant relationships for social and emotional development

Secure attachment

is characterized by trust, comfort, and exploration in the presence of a caregiver

Insecure attachment styles

(avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized) are associated with inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving

Self-concept

refers to an individual's beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions about themselves, which develop through social interactions and self-reflection

Emotional regulation

involves the ability to manage and express emotions appropriately, which develops through modeling and support from caregivers

Moral development

as described by Kohlberg, progresses from a focus on obedience and punishment to an understanding of universal ethical principles

Social cognition

involves the ability to understand and interpret the thoughts, feelings, and intentions of others (theory of mind)

Language development

involves the acquisition of phonology (sound system), morphology (word structure), syntax (grammar), semantics (meaning), and pragmatics (language use in context)

Babbling

is a precursor to language development, typically emerging around 6 months of age

Bilingualism

the acquisition of two languages, can occur simultaneously (learning both from birth) or sequentially (learning a second language after the first is established)

Classical conditioning

discovered by Pavlov, involves learning to associate a neutral stimulus with a reflexive response

Operant conditioning

developed by Skinner, involves learning through consequences (reinforcement and punishment)

Observational learning

or modeling, involves learning by observing and imitating others

Insight learning

involves solving problems through sudden understanding or realization, rather than trial and error

Latent learning

refers to learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement but is demonstrated later when incentives are provided

Developmental psychology

studies how individuals grow and change throughout life, focusing on chronological milestones, recurring patterns, and the balance between stability and change. 

Chronological development

emphasizes the sequence and timing of changes as people age, with milestones marking key events at specific ages, like walking or talking. 

Thematic development

focuses on overarching patterns and issues that extend across life stages.

Stability in development

means traits, characteristics, or patterns that remain consistent over time

Change in development

refers to ways individuals grow, mature, and adapt as they age

Continuous development

views growth as a gradual, incremental process without distinct stages.

Discontinuous development

proposes that individuals progress through discrete, qualitatively different stages.

Cross-sectional designs

compare individuals of different ages at a single point in time

Longitudinal designs

track the same individuals repeatedly over an extended period

Teratogens

are substances that can harm the developing fetus and lead to birth defects or developmental issues.

Genetic mutations

either inherited or spontaneous, can cause physical and cognitive abnormalities

Gross motor skills

involve large muscle movements like crawling, walking, and running

Fine motor skills

require precise, coordinated movements of the hands and fingers

Reflexes

are automatic, involuntary responses to specific stimuli

Rooting reflex

causes infants to turn their head toward a touch on the cheek and begin sucking.

Imprinting

is a rapid, instinctive learning process that occurs during a critical period in some animal species

Puberty

marks the transition from childhood to adulthood and is triggered by hormonal changes

Adolescent growth spurt

is a rapid increase in height and weight that occurs during puberty

Primary sex

characteristics are the reproductive organs that develop during puberty

Secondary sex

characteristics are physical features that distinguish males and females but are not directly involved in reproduction

Adulthood

is the longest stage of human development, spanning from the end of adolescence to the end of life

Gender

refers to the social and cultural roles associated with being male, female, or non-binary, while sex is biologically based (male, female).

Sexual orientation

refers to an individual's pattern of physical, romantic, or emotional attraction to others.

Heterosexual

attracted to the opposite gender.

Homosexual

attracted to the same gender.

Bisexual

attracted to both genders.

Pansexual

attracted to individuals regardless of gender.

Asexual

lacks sexual attraction to others.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Noam Chomsky proposed that humans are born with an innate biological mechanism

Universal Grammar

a set of structural rules common to all languages.

Secure Attachment

Children with secure attachment show distress when the caregiver leaves but are quickly comforted upon their return.

Avoidant Attachment

Children with avoidant attachment do not show strong distress when the caregiver leaves and may avoid the caregiver upon return.

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment

Children with anxious or ambivalent attachment display intense distress when the caregiver leaves and are not easily comforted upon their return.

Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)

In the first stage, infants develop a sense of trust when caregivers are consistent and responsive to their needs.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood)

As toddlers begin to explore their independence, they need supportive guidance to develop autonomy.

Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool)

In this stage, children take initiative in their actions and decision-making.

Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age)

Children develop competence and self-confidence by mastering skills and tasks.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence)

During adolescence, individuals explore their personal identity and beliefs.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood)

This stage focuses on developing close, committed relationships.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood)

Adults in this stage seek to contribute to society and support the next generation.

Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood)

In the final stage, individuals reflect on their lives.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

is the automatic, unlearned reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

is an initially neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairings with the UCS, becomes associated with it and elicits a response.

Conditioned response (CR)

is the learned reaction to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after association with the UCS.

Spontaneous recovery

is the sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR) after a rest period.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses. For example, a rat might receive food after every five lever presses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses, leading to a high and steady rate of behavior.

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval, provided the desired behavior occurs.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is provided at unpredictable time intervals, resulting in steady but moderate behavior.

Attention

 is influenced by various factors, including the observer’s interest in the behavior, the attractiveness or status of the model, and environmental distractions.

Retention

involves the ability to remember the observed behavior and store it in memory.

Reproduction

is the process of replicating or reproducing the observed behavior.

Motivation

determines whether an individual will choose to reproduce a learned behavior.

Direct Reinforcement

Observers may be motivated by anticipated rewards for imitating the behavior, such as praise or tangible rewards.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Observing a model receiving rewards or punishment for a behavior can influence the observer’s motivation to imitate that behavior.

Self-Reinforcement

Internal rewards, such as personal satisfaction or a sense of accomplishment, can also motivate behavior.

Hippocampus

plays a critical role in memory formation, especially in consolidating new information into long-term memory.

Amygdala

is involved in processing emotions and emotional memories.

Mirror neurons

are specialized brain cells that activate both when an individual performs a specific action and when they observe someone else performing the same action.

Dopamine

is a neurotransmitter associated with the brain’s reward and pleasure system.

Oxytocin

is a hormone and neurotransmitter involved in social bonding, trust, and empathy.