AP Psych Unit 2

belief perseverance

our tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence

motivated reasoning

Rather than using evidence to draw conclusions, they used their conclusions to assess the evidence

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions.

intuition

recognition born of experience, is usually adaptive (rely on learned associations that surface as gut feelings, right or wrong), and through selective attention we can focus our conscious awareness on a particular aspect of all we experience

adaptive ex: newlyweds’ implicit, git-level attitude toward spouse predicts future marital happiness

selective attn ex: sleeping on it, allowing nonconscious thinking

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

alzheimer’s disease

disease that slowly strips memory; begins as difficultly remembering new information, progressing to an inability to do everyday tasks. complex speech to simple sentences, family to strangers; brain’s memory centers become weak and wither away

super-recognizers

extraordinary face recognizing ability

recall

retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time. A fill-in-the-blank question tests your recall

recognition

identifying items previously learned. A multiple-choice question tests your recognition

relearning

learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time. When you review the first weeks of course work to prepare for your final exam, or speak a language used in early childhood, it will be easier to relearn the material than it was to learn it initially.

encode

get information into our brain

store

retain the information

retrieve

later get the information back out of our brain

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

connectionism

views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

neuroplasticity

Every time you learn something new, your brain’s neural connections change

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten. we encode it through rehearsal

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences; for later retrieval

working memory

the brain's temporary workspace, holding and manipulating a small amount of information for immediate use, crucial for reasoning, learning, and understanding complex tasks like following conversations or solving math problems

linking new emperiences with our long-term memories

maintenance rehearsal

helps us prolong memory storage through rehearsal over time

elaborative rehearsal

rehearsing information in ways that promote meaning

central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information.

visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space.

neurogenesis

formation of new neurons; new neurons may form in response to exercise, sleep, and nonstressful but stimulating environments; increased activity in particular pathways, neural interconnections are forming and strengthening.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

explicit memories

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.

implicit (nondeclarative) memories

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli and anticipate events

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

spaced effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

structural encoding

a word’s letters

phonemic encoding

a word’s sound

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

semantically

based on the meaning of the words

self-reference effect

The tendency to remember self-relevant information

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

schemas

the frameworks we’ve learned to use in understanding our world; also affect our memory processing

prefrontal cortex

where input is sent for working memory processing

left frontal lobe

recalling a password and holding it in working memory activates ___. (lobe)

right frontal lobe

calling up a visual party scene would activate the ___. (lobe)

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage; “save” button for explicit memories

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory.

cerebellum

plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning

basal ganglia

deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills

infantile amnesia

the first 3.5-4 years of memory that is largely blank

amygdala

activated when emotionally aroused or stressed; initiates a memory trace that boosts activity in the brain’s memory-forming areas

memory trace

a lasting physical change as the memory forms

flashbulb memories

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

retrieval cues

like passwords that open memories; The more retrieval cues you have, the better your chances of finding a route to the suspended memory. The best retrieval cues come from associations we form when we encode a memory — smells, tastes, and sights that can evoke our memory of the associated person or event

retrospective memory

memories from past 

prospective memory

our intended actions; To remember to do something (say, to text someone before you go out), one effective strategy is to mentally associate the act with a cue (perhaps putting your phone by the door)

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.

ex: After seeing or hearing the word rabbit, we are later more likely to spell the spoken word hair/hare as h-a-r-e, even if we don’t recall seeing or hearing rabbit

context-dependent memory

putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something earlier can prime your memory retrieval

ex: When you visit your childhood home or neighborhood, old memories surface

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.

state-dependent memory

What we learn in one state may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state.

ex: What adults learn when drunk they don’t recall well in any state (alcohol disrupts memory storage). But they recall it slightly better when again drunk. Adults who hide money when drunk may forget the location until drunk again.

mood congruent

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

ex: If you’ve had a bad day — you argued with a friend, lost your phone, and got a poor grade on your midterm — your gloomy mood may facilitate recalling other bad times

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect) and the first items in a list after a delay (a primacy effect).

recency effect

briefly recalled the last items especially quickly and well, perhaps because those items were still in working memory.

primacy effect

after a delay, when their attention was elsewhere, their recall was best for the first items

interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics.

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories.

retrograde amnesia

an inability to remember information from one’s past.

displacement

Information that is not encoded for long-term storage will be lost as new information enters short-term memory

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.

ex: If you buy a new combination lock, your well-rehearsed old combination may interfere with your retrieval of the new one

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.

ex: If someone sings new lyrics to an old song’s tune, you may have trouble remembering the original words. Imagine a second stone tossed in a pond, disrupting the waves rippling out from the first.

repress

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.

misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.

ex: After exposure to subtly misleading information, we may confidently misremember what we’ve seen or heard; A yield sign becomes a stop sign, hammers become screwdrivers, Coke cans become peanut cans, breakfast cereal becomes eggs, and a clean-shaven man morphs into a man with a mustache

imagination inflation

a memory distortion phenomenon where an individual's confidence that an event actually happened increases after they have imagined it

ex: In experiments, researchers have altered photos from a family album to show some family members taking a hot-air balloon ride. After viewing these photos (rather than photos showing just the balloon), children reported more false memories of the balloon ride, and indicated high confidence in those memories

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to a wrong source). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

constructive memory

to infer our past from stored information, plus what we later imagined, expected, saw, and heard. Memories are constructed: We don’t just retrieve them, we reweave them; not a literal recording of the past but an active process of rebuilding experiences from fragments of information and existing knowledge, often leading to distortions and inaccuracies

deja vu

that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

intelligence

• Definition: The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

• Example: A student who learns a new math concept in class and then applies it to real-life budgeting shows intelligence.

general intelligence (g)

• Definition: A general intelligence factor, proposed by Charles Spearman, that underlies specific mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test.

• Example: Someone who does well on a vocabulary test also tends to do well on a math reasoning test, suggesting a shared g factor.

factor analysis

• Definition: A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test to see which traits or skills are related.

• Example: Factor analysis shows that doing well on reading comprehension questions often correlates with strong writing skills.

fluid intelligence (Gf)

• Definition: The ability to reason quickly and abstractly; tends to decrease with age.

• Example: Solving a novel logic puzzle you’ve never seen before.

crystallized intelligence (Gc)

• Definition: Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

• Example: Using vocabulary learned in school to solve crossword puzzles.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory

• Definition: A broad model of intelligence combining Cattell’s fluid and crystallized intelligence with Carroll’s three-stratum theory, identifying multiple broad and narrow cognitive abilities.

• Example: This model explains why someone might be strong in reading comprehension but weaker in processing speed.

savant syndrome

• Definition: A condition in which a person with otherwise limited mental ability has an exceptional specific skill.

• Example: A person with autism who cannot hold a conversation but can instantly calculate complex calendar dates.

grit

• Definition: Passion and perseverance toward long-term goals.

• Example: A student practices violin for years, despite setbacks, until reaching concert-level skill.

emotional intelligence

• Definition: The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

• Example: A friend senses you’re upset and comforts you in a supportive way.

intelligence test

• Definition: A method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with others, using numerical scores.

• Example: Taking the WAIS to get an IQ score.

achievement test

• Definition: A test designed to measure what a person has already learned.

• Example: The AP Psychology exam.

aptitude test

• Definition: A test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

mental age

• Definition: A measure of intelligence test performance, devised by Binet, that compares chronological age with the average age performance for that level.

• Example: A 10-year-old scoring at the average level of 12-year-olds has a mental age of 12.

Stanford-Binet

• Definition: The widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test.

• Example: A child’s performance on the Stanford-Binet test is used to identify giftedness.

intelligence quotient

• Definition: Originally, the ratio of mental age to chronological age × 100; on contemporary tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

• Example: A student with a score of 130 is well above the average IQ of 100.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

• Definition: The most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.

• Example: The WAIS gives separate scores for working memory, processing speed, and verbal comprehension.