amstud unit test 7

trusts

companies combined to limit competition

• legal devices whereby the affairs of several rival companies were managed by a single director; mostly short-lived

• hoped to divide chaotic market between competing firms and fixed prices

vertical integration

company’s avoidance to intermediaries by producing its own supplies and providing for distribution of its product

• Andrew Carnegie’s way of life

horizontal expansion

the process by which a corporation acquires or merges with its competitors (ex: buying out competing oil refineries)

robber barons

also known as “captains of industry” Gilded age industrial figures who inspired both admiration, for their economic leadership and innovatiion, and hostility and fear, due to their unscrupulous business methods, repressive labor practices, and unprecedented economic control over entire industries

• wielded a lot of power without accountability, dictatorial attitudes, crual unprecedented economic control over entire industries

• Andrew Carnegie and John Rockefeller

wealth against commonwealth 1894

expose how Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company made a mockery of economic competition and political democracy by manipulating the market and biribing legislators; declared by Henry Demarest Lloyd that “Liberty and monopoly” cannot live together

Gilded age

popular but derogatory name for the period from the end of the civil war to the turn of the century, after the title of the 1873 novel by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner

• era from 1870-1890 that suggests layer of gold makes covering a core of little real value and therefore deceptive

social darwinism

application of Charle’s Darwin’s theory of natural selection to society; used the concept of the survival of the fittest to justify class distinctions and poverty/social classes

• gov must not interefere because it was a natural process

• darwinists believed that giant industrial corporations had emerged because it was better adapted to fix the environment than earlier forms of enterprise

• William Graham Sumner

• popularize the negative definition of freedom as a limited fov and an unrestrained free market; neither gov nor unions had the right to interfere with working conditions + Americans had no right to complain of loss of freedom in work (principle of free labor)

william Graham sumner

yale professor that was era’ most influential Social darwinist; believed that freedom required Frank acceptance of inequality; believed the two alternatives of society were liberty, inequality, survival of the fittest, or not-liberty, equality, survival of the unfittest

Great Railroad Strike ( 1877)

series of violent nationwide strikes; done by railroad workers to protest railroad companies cutting wages to save money

• shut down 60% of nation’s railroads; 100 people died after President Hayes sent troops to diminish strike

• workers responded by burning city’s railroad yards, destroying millions of dollars in property

• strike revealed a strong sense of solidarity among workers and close ties between Republican party and new class of industrialists

• led to more troops being placed in major cities to prevent further labor difficulties (national power was now being used to guarantee the rights of properties rather than protect former slaves)

• shift of slave controversy to labor controversy

Knights of Labor 1869

first national union; under leadership of Terence V. Powderly only in the 1890s; first group to try to organize unskilled workers, blacks and whites, women and men, while supporting strikes, boycotts, political action, and education and social activities

• inclusiveness led to initial success

• downfall: Haymarket Affair on May 4th, 1886, where sentiments on labor unions became ideas that they were violent and radical

single tax

concept of taxing only landowners as a remedy for poverty, promulgated as a solution by Henry George in Progress and Poverty (1879); millions responded to his book on how social distress was originally in Europe and made its way to the US

Social Gospel

ideals preached by liberal protestant clergymen in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; advocated the application of Christain principles to social problems generated by industrialization

• effort to reform Protestant churches by expanding their appeal in poor urban neighborhoods and making them more attentive to the era’s social ills

• people advocating Social Gospel insisted that freedom and spiritual self-development required equalization of wealth and power, and that unbridled competition mocked the Christiain ideal of brotherhood

• established missions and relief programs in urban areas that attempted to alleviate poverty, combat child labor, and encourage construction of better working-class housing

• group of priests and bishops in American catholicism argued that Church should give them support for labor movement

Haymarket affair

violence during an anarchist protest at Haymarket Square in Chicago on May 4, 1886; deaths of 8 (7 were policement), led to trial of eight anarchist leaders for conspiracy to commit murder

• critics argue that events at Haymarket affair proved that labor movements were dangerous and violent and were controlled by foreign-born radicals

haymarket square riot May 3rd 1886

four stickers were killed by the police; a rally was held in Haymarket Square the next day to protest the killings of the strikers

• unidentifiable person unrelated to Knights of Labor threw a damn bomb and killed a police officer, leading to all other officers shooting everyone

bonanza farms

large farms that covered thousands of acres and employed hundreds of wage laborers in the West in the late 19th century; despite this, family farms still dominated the trans-Mississippi west

• small farmers became increasingly oriented to national and international markets that specialized in producing single crops for sales

• railroads brought factory-made goods to rural people, replacing items previously producedi n farmers hoems

Dawes Act of 1887

law passed to encourage adoption of white norms among Indiains; broke up tribal holdings into small farms for Indian families; with remainder sold to white purchasers

• broke up the land of nearly all tribes into small parcels that would be distributed to Indian families and remainder to white

• loss of tribal land and Indian cultural traditions

• land rushes by white settlers to claim farms in the 1890s

• by 1900, approx53, 53000 Indians became American citizens by accepting allotments under Dawes Act

wounded knee massacre

last incident of the Indian wars; took place in 1890 in the DakotaTerritory, where the US cavalry killed over 200 Sioux men, women, and children

• soldiers opened fire on Ghost Dancers near WOunded Knee Creet on December 29, 1890

• most victims were women and children; massacre was widely applauded in the press

• 20 soldiers granted Medal of Honor for their heroism;Army Court of Inquiry excused the troops doing

• massacre marked the End of four centuries of armed conflict between ocntinent’s native pop and European settlers

gold standard

policy at various points in American history by which the value of a dollar was set at a fixed price in terms of gold; US returned to the gold standard in 1879 for the first time since the Civil War; paper currency became exchangeable for gold at a fixed rate

Civil Service Act of 1883

law that established Civil Service Commission and marked the end of the spoils system; created merit system for federal employees with employees being appointed via competitive examination rather than political influence (aka still over bias)

• applied at first only 10 percent of gov workers

• first step in establishing professional service

• civil service reform has the intended result of increasing politicians’ dependence on donations from business interests

• accomplishment

interstate commerce commission

organization established by Congress in reaction to the US supreme court’s ruling in Wabash railroad v. Illinois (1886); in order to curb abuses in the railroad industry by regulating rates; ensures that rates railroads charged farmers and merchants to transport their goods were reasonable and did not offer more favorable treatment to some shippers

• ICC was the first federal agency intended to regulate economic acitivty, but it could only sue companies in court (could not establish its own rates, little impact on actual railroad practices

• accomplishment during gilded age

Sherman antitrust Act

passed in 1890, first law to restrict monopolistic trusts and business combinations; enxtended by the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914

• banned all combinations and practices that restrained free trade

• language used was so vague that it was hard to enforce

• laws established the precedent that the national government could regulate the economy to promote the public good

technological innovations in gilded age

• rapid communication and neconomic growth

• 1866: Atlantic cable —> made possible to send electronic telegraph messages between nUS and Europe

• 1870s, 1880s: telephone, typewriter, handheld cameras

• Thomas Edison: invented phonograph, lightbulb, motion picture, system for generating and distributing electric power

andrew carnegie

established Steel company w/ vertical integration during depression in 1873

• dominated steel industry by 1890s

• factories ran nonstop, dictorial guy, “rags to riches” ideal

• many business leaders accumulated enormous fortunes and powers due to this time period not having personal or corporate income taxes such as Carnegie

john rockefeller

established the Standard Oil Company in 1880s; controlled 90 percent of the nation’s oil industry

• began horizontal expansion; but eventually established a vertically integrated monopoly that dominated drilling, refining, storage, distribution of oil

• gave a lot of his fortune to promote education and medical research

• fought against his employees’ efforts to organize unions like Carnegie

Jacob riis

pusblished How the Other Half Lives (1890) - wrote about conditions among the urban poor w/ photographs of apartments in dark, airless, overcrowded tenement houses

principle of free labor

originated as a celebration of independent small producers in a society with broad equality; now used in gilded age as a defense of the unrestrained operations of the capitalist marketplace (as long as labor relations were governed by contracts that both parties accepted, neither gov nor unions had the right to interfere with working conditions)

US v E. C. Knight Co.

Supreme court ruled that the Shermen Antitrust Act of 1890 (act that barred restraints in trade) could not break up a sugar refining monopoly because the constitution empowered Congress to regulate commerce but not manufacturing

• Sherman Act intended to prevent business mergers that stifled competition

Lochner v. New York

supreme court voided a state law establishing 10 hours per day or sixty per week as maximum hours of work for bakers

The Cooperative Commonwealth (1884) by Laurence Gronlund

first book to popularize socialist ideas to an American audience; these ideals were originally mostly confined to immigrants; portrayed socialism as the end result of a process of peaceful evolution

• made socialism more acceptable to middle-class Americans who desired an end to class conflict and the restoration of social harmony

socialism

belief that private control of economic enterprises should be replaced by public ownership in order to ensure a fairer distribution of the benefits of the wealth produced; became a major political force in western Europe in late 1800s

• ppl in US believed that access to private property was essential for individual freedom

• socialism did not become significant in American public life until the 20th century

Looking Backward (1888) by Edward bellamy

audience was built up on cooperative commonwealth book prior and promoted socialist ideals white ignoring that name (nationalism)

• main character wakes up in year 2000 where cooperation replaced class strife and excessive individualism

• Bellamy believed that freedom dependent on interdependence, not autonomy + he hoped that material abundance stayed while eliminatting inequality through industrial capitalism

populists

founded in 1892, a group that advocated a variety of reform issues, including free coinage of silver, income tax, postal savings, regulation of railroads, and direct election of Us senators

American federation of Labor (AFL)

federation of trade unions founded in 1881 composed mostly of skilled, white, native-born workers; long term president was Samuel Gompers

• shift from broad reformist to more limited goals (from Knights of Labor)

• declared unions should not seek economic independence, rather labor movement should devote itself to negotiating with the employers for higher wages and better working conditions for its members

• during 1890s, union membership rebounded from its decline int he late 1880, but it became less and less inclusive

  • abandoned the knights’ ideal of labor solidarity, leading to restricted membership to skilled workers

    • excludes nearly all blacks, women, and new European immigrants

    • membership centered on sectors of the economy like printing and building construction that were dominated by small competitive business

• afl unions had little presence in basic industries like steel and rubber or in the large factories that now dominated the economy

New South

Atlanta constitution editor Henry W. Grady’s 1886 term for the prosperous post-Civil War south he envisioned; democratic, industrial, urban, and free of nostalgia for the defeated plantation South

Kansas Exodus

a migration in 1879 and 1880 by some 40,000-60,000 Blacks to Kansas to escape the oppressive environment of the New South

Atlanta Compromise

speech to the cotton states and international expositiion in 1895 by educator Booker T. Washington, the leading Black spokesman of the day; Black scholar WEB Dubois gave the speech to its derisive name and criticized Washington for encouraging blacks to accommodate segregation and disenfranchisement

grandfather clause

loophole created by southern disenfranchising legislatures of the 1890s for illiterate white males whose grandfathers had been eligible to vote before the Civil war

disenfranchisemenet

depriving a person or persons of the right to vote; exclusionary policies were used to deny groups, especially Afrian Americans and women their voting rights

Plessy v. Ferguson

US supreme court decision supporting the legality of Jim Crow Laws that permitted ore required separate but equal facilities for blacks and whites

separate but equal

principle underlying legal racial segregation, upheld in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) and struck down in Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Lost cause

a romanticized view of slavery, the old south, and the confederacy that arose in the decades following the civil war

Immigration Restriction League

a political organization founded in 1894 that called for reducing immigration to the US by requiring a literacy test for immigrants

Chinese exclusion act 1882

law that halted Chinese immigration to the US

yellow press

sensationalism in newspaper publishing that reached a peak in the circulation war between Joseph Pulitzer’s NY World and WIlliam Randolph Hearst’s NY Journey in the 1890s; papers’ accounts of events in Havana Harbor in 1898 led directly to the Spanish Amerian war

U.S.S Maine

battleship that exploded in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898; resulting in 266 deaths; The American public assumed that the Spanish had mined the ship, and called for war, and the Spanish American war was declared two months later

Platt Amendment 1901

amendment to the Cuban constitution that reserved the right of the US to intervene in Cuban affairs and that forced newly independent Cuba to host American naval bases on the island

Open Door Policy

demand in 1899 by Secretary of State John Hay, in hopes of protecting the Chinese market for US exports, that Chinese trade be open to all nations

Philippine War

American military campaign that suppressed the movement for Philippine independence after the Spanish-American war, America’s death toll was over 4000 and that of the Philippines was far higher

Insular cases

series of cases between 1901 and 1904 in which the supreme court ruled that constitutional protection of individual rights did not fully apply to residents of insular territories acquired by the US in the Spanish-American war, such as Puerto Rico and the Philippines

anti-imperialist league

coalition of anti-imperialist groups united in 1899 to protest American territorial expansion, especially in the Philippine Islands; its membership included prominent politicians, industrialists, labor leaders, and social reforms

farmers revolt

uprising in SOuth a ND trans-mississipi WEst, a response to falling agricultural prices and growing economic dependency in rural areas

• interruption of cotton exports due to civil war led to rapid expansion of production in India, Egypt, and Brazil; by the time the South bounced back to production from the war, they were no longer needed

• through farmers’ alliance, the largest citizens’ movement of the 19th century, farmers sought to fix their conditions

People’s Party / Populist Platofrm

(populists); attempting to speak for all producing classes; promoted agricultural education and believed farmers should adopt modern scientific methods of cultivation

• wanted to also restore democarcy and economic opportunity

• additionally called for public ownership of railroads to guarantee farmers inexpensive access to markets

• some white populists insisted that black and white farmers shared common grievances

• democrats however, fended off the populist challenge by resorting to the tactics that mobilized whites with warnings about “negro supremacy,” imitating black voters

• populist movement also engaged the energies of thousands of reform-minded women from farm and labor backgrounds

  • mary elizabeth lease, former homesteader and one of the first female lawyers in Kansas, became prominent organizers, campaigners, and strategists

  • during 1890s, referendums in colorado and idaho approved extending the vote to women, whereas in kansas and california the proposal went down in defeat

progressivism

broad-based reform movement, 1900-1917 that sought governmental action in solving problems in many areas of American life, including education, public health, the economy, the environment, labor, transportation, and politics

• realized workers need a voice in economic division making

• consisted of businessmen with a brain, labor activists, female reform organizations, social scientists, and middle class people who feared big businesses were a threat to their social status

• reinvigorating movement for woman suffrage, expand worker rights, weaken power of city bosses, making ordinary citizens more influential

muckraking

writing that exposed corruption and abuses in politics, business, meatpacking, child labor, etc. in beginning of 20th century; stirred moral outrage

• ex: Lewis Hine, Lincoln Steffens, Upton Sinclai, Willian L. Sonntag

Lewish Hine

photographed child laborers to draw attention to social inequality (muckraking guy)

Lincoln Steffens

wrote The Shame of the Cities (1904) (muckraking guy); book abt corruption in gov such as political machines

Upton Sinclair

wrote The Jungle (1906); description fo unsanitary slaughterhouses and horrors of meatpacking industry to stir public outrage

• led to Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act of 1906

William L. Sonntag

early 20th century painter depicting scenes of urban life, such as Bowery at Night

Ellis Island

reception center in NY harbor through which most European immigrants to America were processed from 1892 to 1954

• most Euro immigrants enter through Ellis Island + became nation’s main immigrant processing and detention facility in 1892

• served as main entry point for Asians between 1910-1940

• 1900-1930: approx 1 mil Mexicans entered US

Fordism

early 20th century term to describe economic system by Ford Motor Company based on high wages and mass consumption

• mass production, mass consumption, first example is Henry Ford’s car company

• greatly expanded output while reducing the time it took to produce each car (introduction of assembly lines)

• shifted economic production of capital goods to consumer products

American standard of living

progressive-era idea that American workers were entitled to a wage high enough to allow them full participation in the nation’s mass consumption economy

Socialist party

political party that demanded public ownership of major economic enterprises in US as well as reforms like recognition of labor unions and woman suffrage; reached peak of influence in 1912; presidnential candidate was Eugene V. Debs

• called for immediate reforms like free college education, new legislation to improve laborers conditions, have democratic control over the economy through public ownership for railroads and factories

• had huge support from AFL

collective bargaining

the process of negotiations between an employer and a group of employees to regulate working conditions; a series of mass strikes among immigrant workers demanded for the right of collective bargaining

• IWW organizers printed leaflets, posters, etc. to advocate that each nationality enjoy representation

Industrial workers of the World

radical union formed in Chicago in 1905, also known as Wobblies; group of unionists who rejected the AFL’s exclusionary policies

• advocate for workers’ revolution by seizing production and abolishing state

• sought to mobilize those who were excluded from AFL

birth control movement

early 20th century feminist movement that saw access to birth control and “voluntary motherhood” as essential to women’s freedom; led by Margaret Sanger

• growing presence of women in labor market reinforced demands for access to birth control

• challenged laws that once banned contraceptives

• Margaret Sanger starts a column ons sex education in 1911: What Every Girld SHould Know

• Margaret Sanger wrote The Women Rebel wherer she advertised birth control devices and advocated for the right to choosing motherhood or not

• IWW and Socialist distributed Sanger’s writings

Society of American Indians

organization founded in 1911 that brought together Native Americans leaders who did not believe that being a modern Indian meant eradicating their traditional Native American cultures

• 1905: leaders held a convention to make new pan-Indian state of Sequoyah to retain their political authority in the US federal system, but Congress established the state of Oklahoma in 1907 instead (this united Indian and Oklahoma Territory)

• Crazy Snakes - grassroots movement by the Muscogees formed in 1902 to reestablish their landholdings and gov

initiative

a progressive-era reform that allowed citizens to propose and vote on laws, bypassing state legislatures

• direct legislation, sought to weaken power of political bosses and transfer it to ordinary citizens

• system quickly went out of control when progressives tried using initiative and referendum to increase taxes on the well-to-do and require the state to provide jobs for the unemployed

referendum

a progressive-era reform that allowed public policies to be submitted to popular vote

• William U’Ren’s Oregon system; continued to lay groundwork for women suffrage

recall

a progressiv-era reform that allowed the removal of public officials by popular vote

17th amendment

progressive reform passed in 1913 that required US senators to be elected directly by voters (they were previously chose nby state legislatures)

• enhanced democracy

settlement house

late 19th century movement to offer a broad array of social services in urban immigrant neighborhoods; Chicago’s Hull house was one of hundreds of settlement houses

• mainly helped the poor immigrant communities in cities

• workers would move into poor neighborhoods

• established kindergartens, playgrounds, employment bureaus, health clinics, helped women gain legal protection from domestic abuse

Muller v. Oregon

1908 supreme court decision that held the state interest in protecting women could override liberty of contract; Louis D. Brandeis filed a brief citing scientific study showing how women had less strength and endurance than men, therefore long labor/working hours were dangerous for women

• effect: supreme court upheld a maximum working hours for women

• first large breach in liberty of contract

Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906

first law to regulate manufacturing of food and medicines; prohibited dangerous additives and inaccurate labeling, which increased confidence in quality and safety of food products; called by Roosevelt

16th amendment

constitutional amendment passed in 1913 that legalized federal income tax

• authorized Congress to enact a graduated income tax (one whose rate of taxation is higher for wealthier citizens)

• reliable and felible source of revenue for national state

progrressive party

created when former president Theodore RFoosevelt broke away from Republican party to run again in 1912; supported progressive reforms similar to Democrats but did not seek to eliminate trusts

• Roosevelt’s supporters argued that Wilson’s program served the needs of small businessmen but ignored the inevitability of economic concentration and interest of professionals, consumers, labor

new freedom

Democrat Woodrow WIlson’s political slogan in the presidential campaign of 1912: WIlson wanted to improve the banking system, lower tariffs, and, by breaking up monopolies, give small businesses freedom to compete

• envisioned fed gov by strengthening antitrust laws, protecting the right of workers to unionize the actively encourage small businesses (creating conditions for new economic competition without government regulation of the economy)

new nationalism

platform of the progressive party and slogan of former president Theodore Roosevelt in the presidential campaign of 1912

• stressed gov activism, including regulation of trusts, conservation, and recall of state court decision that have nullified progressive programs

• insisted that only controlling power of gov could restore liberty of the oppressed

• called for heavy taxes on personal and corporate fortunes and federal regulation of industries, such as railroads

Federal Trade Commission

independent agency created by the Wilson administration that replaced the bureau of corporations as an even more powerful tool to combat unfair trade practices and monopolies

• investigate and prohibit unfair business activities such as price-fixxing and monopolistic practices

• both Fed Reserve and the FTC were welcomed by many business leaders because it could mean restoring order of economic marketplace and warding off more radical measures for curbing corporate power

liberal internationalism

woodrow wilson’s foreign policy theory, which rested ont he idea that economic and political freedom went hand in hand and encouraged American interventionabroad to secure freedoms globally

Panama Canal zone

small strip of land on either side of Panama canal; the canal zone was nder US control from 1903 to 1979 as a result of Theodore Roosevelt’s assistance in engineering a coup in Colombia that established Panama’s independence

Roosevelt Corollary

1904 annoncement by President Theodore Roosevelt, essentially a corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, stating that the S could intervene militarily to prevent interference from European powers in the Western hemispherer

dollar diplomacy

a foreign policy initiative under president William Howard Taft that promoted the spread of American influence through loans and economic investments from American banks

moral imperialism

Wilsonian belief that US foreign policy should be guided by morality and should teach other peoples about democracy. WIlson used this belief to repudiate Dollar Diplomacy and justify frequent military interventions in Latin America

Luusitania

British passenger liner sunk by a German U-Boat, may 7, 1915; created diplomatic crisis and public outrage at the loss of 128 Americans; Germany agreed to pay reparations, and the US waited two more years to enter WWI

Fourteen Points

President Woodrow WIlson’s 1918 plan for peace after WWI ; at the Versailles peace conference, however, he failed ot incorporate all points into the treaty

selective service act

law passed in 1917 to quickly increase enlistment in the army for the US entry into WWI, required men to register with the draft

war industries board

board run by financier Bernard brunch that planned production and allocation of war material, supervised purchasing, and fixed pricing 1917-1919

18th amendment

prohibition amendment passed in 1919 that made illegal the manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcohol, repealed in 1933

Espionage Act

1917 law that prohibited spying and interfering with the draft as well as making “false statements” that hurt the war effort

Sedition Act

1918 law that made it a crime to make spoken or printed statements that criticized the gov’s or encouraged interference with war effort

eugenics

study of the alleged mental and physical characteristics of different groups of people aiming to improve the quality of the human race through selective breeding

national association for the advancement of colored people

founded in 1910, the civil rights organization that brought lawsuits against discriminatory practices and published the Crisis, a journal edited by African American scholar WEB Du Bois

Great Migration

large scale migration of southern Blacks during and after WWI to the north, where jobs have become available during labor shortage during war years

Tulsa massacre

race riot in 1921 where a group of black veterans tried to prevent al unching; over 300 African Americans were killed, and 10000 lost their homes in fires set by white mobs

Marcus Garvey

• The leading spokesman for Negro Nationalism, which exalted Blackness, Black cultural expression, and Black exclusiveness. He called upon African Americans to liberate themselves from the surrounding white culture and create their own businesses, cultural centers, and newspapers. He was also the founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association.

Red Scare of 1919-1920

fear among many Americans after WWI of communists in particular and noncitizens in general, a reaction to the Russian revolution, mail bombs, strikes, and riots

versailles treaty

treaty signed at Versailles peace conference after WWI, which established president Woodrow wilson’s vision of an international regulating body, redrew parts of Europe and middle east, and economically assigned crippling war reparations to Germany but failed to incorporate all of Wilson’s 14 points

league of nations

organization of nations to meditate disputes and avoid war; established after WWI as part of the treaty of Versailles; Woodrow Wilson 14 points speech in Congress in 1918 proposed formation of a league, which the US NEVER JOINED.

sacco-vanzetti case

two Italian American anarchists were found guilty and executed for a crime (robbery at SOuth Braintree); there was VERY LITTLE evidence linking them to the crime, but they were convicted and executed

• Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti

• happened during time of anti-radical and anti-immigrant views

• The verdict symbolized the nativist prejudices of many native-born Americans who were willing to undermine basic American freedoms in order to deal with what they perceived to be an alien threat to their way of life.

• led to mass protests in many counties (ex: Argentina, France, Italy)

equal rights amendment (1923 introduced, but not passed until 1972)

amendment guarantee equal rights for women; was part of long standing division of womens’ ideals of freedom debated: motherhood vs. individual autonomy and right to work

• promoted to constitution by ALice Paul and National WOman’s party

• proposed to eliminate all legal distinctions on account of sex

• Paul argued women didn’t need special legal protection but equal access to employment, education,and all other opportuntiies

• opposed by supporters of mothers’ pensions and laws limiting women’s labor hours; every major female organization