Gunpoweder and the "Military Revolution"

What is gunpowder made of, and what were its original uses?

Gunpowder (black powder) is a chemical mix of sulfer, charcoal, and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). It was originally used in explosives and firearms but is now obsolete in modern warfare due to better alternatives like dynamite.

Where and how was gunpowder invented?

It was invented by Taoist alchemists in China, possibly as early as the 2nd-3rd century CE, while seeking immortality. The first confirmed formula appears in the Wujing Zongyao (1044 AD) during the Song Dynasty.

What were some early Chinese gunpowder weapons?

• Fire lances (bamboo tubes with gunpowder +pellets)

• Rocket arrows and grenades

• Metal hand cannons used by the 13th century.

• Used in events like the Siege of De’an (1132) and Mongol invasions of Japan (1281)

What is the significance of the Huolongjing (c. 1350)?

A Chinese military manual showing rocket arrows, bombs, and early firearms, demonstrating advanced gunpowder warfare well before its arrival in Europe.

How did gunpowder technology spread from China to Europe?

• Possible routes: via Mongols, Islamic world, or independent development.

• European record begins with Roger Bacon (13th century)

• Spread was rapid (decades) compared to paper or printing press.

When did artillery become a key force in European warfare?

• Limited role in Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)

• Crucial in Italian Wars (1494-1559)

• Led to the decline of medieval castles and high walls.

What is the trace italienne and why was it revolutionary?

A star-shaped fortification with low, thick, angled walls that could deflect cannon fire. No “dead zones” meant full visibility for defense. It emerged after the Siege of Constantinople (1453).

What caused the decline of cavalry in the 14th century?

• Infantry with longbows and pikes defeated knights

• Foot soldiers were cheaper, more numerous, and easier to train

• Infantry growth enabled larger armies.

What role did pikemen play in this transformation?

Pikemen, often Swiss mercenaries, formed defensive walls against cavalry. They dominated early modern European battlefields, as seen in the Battle of Dornach (1499) and Italian Wars.

What is the “Military Revolution” thesis?

A theory (Geoffrey Parker) that from 1500-1800, Europe saw a revolution in military technology and statecraft, driven by gunpowder weapons and professionalized armies. Revisionist historians, however, argue for a long, gradual evolution instead of a sudden “revolution.”

How did administrative developoments support larger armies?

• Pre-1650: armies <50,000; relied on living off the land

• Post-1650: armies supplied via depots and logistics networks

• Enabled mass mobilization during the Napoleonic Wars (1790-1815), where armies reached 100,000+ soldieres.

How did gunpowder warfare shape the modern state?

The need for larger armies and logistics led to:

• Centralized state control

• Efficient bureaucracy

• Stronger taxation systems to fund armies —> these helped create the early modern state.