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Socioeconomic status
an individuals position in a stratified social order
Stratification
the hierarchical organization of a society into groups with differing levels of power, social prestige, or status and economic resources
Income
Money received by a person for work, transfers (gifts, inheritances), or returns on investment
Wealth
a family’s or individual’s net worth (total asset minus total debts)
Upper class
Term for economic elite. Income mostly comes from returns on investments rather than wages, and historically distinguished by not having to work.
Middle class
Term commonly used to describe individuals with non-manual jobs that pay significantly more than the poverty line. In the US, 90% identify as this class
Jean Jacques Rosseau
Argued that private property creates social inequality, which ultimately leads to social conflict
Social equality
A condition where no differences in wealth, power prestige, or status based on nonnatural conventions exist
Adam Ferguson and John Millar
Agreed that private property creates inequality, but argued that the inequality is good because it meant some people are getting ahead and creating assets
Thomas Mathus
Viewed inequality favorably, but only as a means for controlling population growth. Thought a more equal distribution of resources would increase the world’s population to unsustainable levels and bring mass starvation and conflict
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Argued that notions of inequality are constantly evolving in a larger historical arc and saw this as a trajectory that would eventually lead to equality for everyone
Dialectical materialism
A notion of history derived by Marx that privileges conflict over economic and material resources as the central struggle and driver of change in society
Max Weber
Challenged Marx’s argument of dialectic materialism saying that inequality was caused by ideas like religion, which determine who gets what
Structural functionalism
a theory where society’s many parts (institutions, norms, traditions, etc.) mesh to produce a stable, working whole that evolves over time. Believes inequality plays an important role in society because it helps allocate the best people to the most important roles
Conflict theory
the idea that conflict between competing interests is the basic, animating force of social change and society in general
Equality of Opportunity
the idea that everyone has an equal chance to achieve wealth, social prestige, and power because the rules of the game are the same for everyone (ex. anti-discrimination laws)
Bourgeois society
A society of commerce in which the maximization of profit is the primary business incentive (modern capitalism). The capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) owns the means of production and exploits the working class (the proletariat) for profit, creating a social order characterized by economic inequality and class struggle, which Karl Marx theorized in his two-class model
Equality of condition
the idea that everyone should have an equal starting point (ex. affirmative action)
Equality of outcome
the idea that each player must end up with the same amount regardless of the fairness of the “game”
Free rider problem
the notion that when more than one person is responsible for getting something done, the incentive is for each individual to avoid responsibility and hope others will pull the extra weight
Estate system
A politically based system of stratification characterized by limited social mobility. Includes laws that separate individuals and distribute power unequally. Was primarily found in Feudal Europe and American South before the Civil War.
Caste system
A religious based system of stratification characterized by no social mobility. Is stratified based on hereditary notions of religious purity. Primarily found in India
Class system
An economically based hierarchical system characterized by cohesive oppositional groups and somewhat loose social mobility
Status hierarchy system
A system of stratification based on social prestige. Prestige can be linked to different things like occupation, lifestyle of membership in certain organizations
Elite-mass dichotomy system
A system of stratification that has a governing elite, a few leaders who broadly hold power in society.
Vilfredo Pareto
Thought the masses were better off in an elite-mass dichotomy system because he believed in a meritocracy where the most skilled and talented people would reach the governing elite
C. Wright Mills
Argued the elite-mass dichotomy is neither natural nor beneficial for society
Horizontal social mobility
a group or individual transitioning from one social status to another situated in more or less the same rung of the ladder
Vertical social mobilitiy
The rise or fall of an individual or group from one social status to another
Structural mobility
Social mobility that is inevitable from changes in the economy (ex. the expansion of high-tech jobs in the past 20 years)
Exchange mobility
Mobility resulting from the swapping of jobs
Status-attainment model
Approach that ranks individuals by socioeconomic status, including income and educational attainments, and seeks to specify the characteristics of people who end up in more desirable occupations
increased
Global income inequality has ____ in the last few centuries due to colonialism and unequal development
Asset
Anything of value that is owned or controlled by a person, business, or organization, with the expectation that it will provide future economic benefit
a piece of property
Identify an example of an asset
Which standard of equality was key to the argument of the civil rights leaders in the 1960s?
Equality of opportunity
harmful to the interests of the masses
C. Wright Mills sees the consolidation of power among a small number of institutions and leaders as…
An individuals’ position in a stratified social order
Socioeconomic status can be defined as
estate
The ___ system is a politically based system of stratification characterized by limited social mobility
Sex
the perceived biological differences that society typically uses to distinguish between males and females
Gender
a social position; a set of attributes that are associated with sex identities
Sexuality
Desire, sexual preference, and intimate behavior
One-sex model of human body type
From ancient Greece to the mid-18th century, it was believed there was only one body (a male body) and the female body was regarded as its inverse (a male body whose parts were flipped inside)
Two-sex model of human body type
19th century belief that women and men were considered radically different and that female orgasm was unnecessary for conception
Essentialist
Explained social phenomena in terms of natural, biological, or evolutionary inevitabilities. See men as biologically different (which impacts behaviors)
Elizabeth Grosz and the Mobius Strip
Proposed that we view the relationship between the natural and the social (sex & gender) akin to a Mobius strip (a math puzzle that looks like a twisted ribbon loop with one side and one edge)
Sociologists
Views gender as more fluid and ambiguous
change
Overtime, masculinity and femininity ____ depending on historical context
Hegemonic masculinity
An invisible condition where men are dominant and privileged.
Feminism
a social movement to get people to understand that gender is an organizing principle in society and to address gender-based inequalities that intersect with other forms of social identity.
Patriarchy
a nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity.
Sexism
a form of prejudice that occurs when a person’s sex or gender is the basis for judgement, discrimination, or other differential treatment against that person.
Sexual harassment
an illegal form of discrimination revolving around sexuality that can involve everything from inappropriate jokes to sexual barter to sexual assault
82 cents to every $1 of a mans
What is the gender wage gap?
Emotional labor
Managing emotions and their outward expression to meet the expectations of a job, especially in service sector work and female-dominated occupations
Pink collar jobs
Low paid service jobs typically occupied by women
Purple collar labor
occupational niches typically filled by transgender people
Occupational segregation
Jobs become “feminized” when more women hit the scene. Work categorized as “women’s work” tends to yield lower pay, prestige, and benefits than men’s work
Glass ceiling
an invisible limit on women’s climb up the occupational ladder
Glass escalator
the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization especially in feminized jobs
The motherhood penalty
Gender inequality in promotions and wages really emerges when women become mothers. Mothers are offered 7.9% lower salaries and considered less competent and committed to their jobs
Structural functionalism
a theory in which society’s many parts (institutions, norms, traditions) mesh to produce a stable, working whole that evolves over time
Sex Role Theory
Talcott Parson’s theory that men and women perform their sex roles as breadwinners and wives/mothers because the nuclear family is the ideal arrangement in modern societies, fulfilling the function of reproducing workers
Psychoanalytic Theory of Gender
Freudian theorists provide an overly individualistic, psychoanalytic explanations for sex roles. Believes gender develops through biological determinism and family socialization
Gayle Rubin’s sex/gender system
Argued that women are treated like valuable property whose trade patterns strengthen relations between families headed by men
Conflict theorists
Believed that gender was the driving force of history and that patriarchal capitalists benefit through systems that subordinate women
Social feminists
argue that the root of all social relations including relations of production stemmed from unequal gender relations
Intersectionality
the idea that its critical to understand the interplay between social identities even though many social systems and institutions like the law try to treat each category on its own
Black feminists
Pointed out importance of intersectionality and argued early feminism was largely by and about white middle-class women
Matrix of domination
Intersecting domains of oppression that create a social space of domination. Explains how black women face unique oppressions not experienced by white women
Postmodern theories
question the notion of “woman” as a separate stable category and question the value of appropriateness of western scholars applying their cultural logical to the study of non-Western societies
Marxist feminists
Argue that sexuality in America expresses unequal power balance between men and women
Gender
____ refers to the set of social arrangements built around normative sex categories
Patriarchy
____ is a nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity
The development of scientific disciplines and desire to categorize behavior
Michel Foucault argued that the development of homosexuality as a social identity was related to
inappropriate jokes, sexual assault, sexual favors
Sexual harassment is an illegal form of discrimination that can be manifested through ____, with the intent of making a person, usually a woman feel uncomfortable or unsafe, particularly in a work setting
limited; more quickly
Women working in male-dominated professions often find that there are __________ opportunities for advancement, and men working in female-dominated professions often advance __________ their female colleagues.
Race
a group of people who share a set of characteristics, typically but not always physical ones, and are said to share a common bloodline. Externally imposed, involuntary, usually based on physical differences, hierarchical, exclusive and unequal
Racism
The belief that members of separate races possess different and unequal traits. Believe humans are divided into distinct bloodlines and/or physical types, these bloodlines or physical traits are linked to distinct cultures, behaviors, personalities, and intellectual abilities, and that certain groups are superior to others
Ethnicity
One’s ethnic quality or affiliation. Is voluntary, self-defined, nonhierarchical, fluid and multiple, and based on cultural differences, not physical ones per se
Symbolic ethnicity
Nationality, not in the sense of carrying the rights and duties of citizenship but in the sense of identifying with a past or future nationality
Roman’s concept of race
Race was on basis of enslaved status, but slaves represented a variety of skin colors and geographic origins
Modern race development
Developed in 17th century due to global changes like the Protestant Reformation, the Age of Exploration/colonization, and the rise of capitalism
Scientific racism
Nineteenth century theories of race that characterize a period of feverish investigation into the origin, explanations, and classifications of race (pseudoscience)
Ethnocentrism
The belief that one's own culture or group is superior to others and the tendency to view all other cultures from the perspective of one's own. Scientific racism was rooted in this.
Ontological equality
The philosophical and religious notion that all people are created equal
Social Darwinism
the application of Darwinian ideas to society—namely the “survival of the fittest”
Hebert Spencer
Popularized the notion that some groups or races had evolved more than others and thus were more fit to survive and even to rule other races. Drew on the work of Darwin to justify racism
Bhagat Singh Thind
A Sikh from India, who according to the Supreme Court (1924) did not qualify as a free white person, despite being a member of the US Army in WWI and being classified as “Caucasian.” Signaled that including dark-skinned immigrants threatened the commonly accepted notion of Whiteness and court found that science could not distinguish human differences sufficiently.
Nazi Germany
A regime that sought to define whiteness. Tried to devise a scientific way to detect Jewishness by measuring head, which didn’t work
One-drop rule
Belief that one drop of Black blood makes a person Black, a concept that evolved from US laws forbidding miscegenation. Intended to keep white population “pure” and was critical in Plessy v. Ferguson case
Miscegenation
Technical term for interracial marriage. Politically and historically charged, so sociologists prefer the term exogamy or outmarriage
Burakumin
A minority who can be distinguished from the rest of the Japanese population only by genealogical detectives. Prejudice against this group often leads to homelessness
Racialization
The formation of a new racial identity by drawing ideological boundaries of differences around a formerly unnoticed group of people (ex. Muslims and Sikh discrimination from 9/11)
Prejudice
Thoughts and feelings about an ethnic or racial group, which can lead to preconceived notions and judgement (often negative) about the group
Discrimination
harmful or negative acts (not mere thoughts) against people deemed inferior on the basis of their racial category without regard to their individual merit
Robert Merton
Developed diagram about the intersections of prejudice and discrimination (active bigot, timid bigot, fair-weather liberal, all-weather liberal)
Active bigot
Prototypical racist
All-weather liberal
neither prejudiced nor discriminatory; “walk the walk" for racial equality
Timid bigot
Prejudice but nondiscriminatory (closet racist). Most people fall in this or fair-weather liberal.