Chinese History weeks 10 and 11

reform and opening up

Beginning in 1978, this refers to the period inaugurated by Deng Xiaoping's rise to prominence in the party after having been purged twice. Deng led the reformist faction in the party, and argued that socialism must aim to develop the productive forces of the economy in order to advance the goal of modernization. Deng shifted the CCP's focus away from class struggle and toward greater economic development and engangement with the outside world. Deng thought that inefficient policies that kept China in poverty were not socialism at all, and that socialism harbored the potential to become more efficient and wealthy than capitalist nations, while maintaining equality which capitalism was incapable of.

Brough China's economy away from strict planning, trade with only the socialist world, and the ironclad social safety net of Mao.

Built off Mao-era policies, such as sideline agriculture, and the development of human capital resulting from Maoist education campaigns.

"red capitalists" something like a national bourgeoisie, as well as diaspora expertise, help to provide necessary experience for economic reform and development.

Deng Xiaoping

Became the main authority in China in 1978, and inaugurated a new era after the vicissitudes of Maoist rule that focused on economic development. Deng was able to harness a reformist coalition without upsetting conservative interests in the party. Southern tour in 1992 pushes reforms further, setting China on the path to modernization and toward great power status.

Zhao Ziyang

Zhao was a key member of the reform faction in China. Zhao replaced Hu Yaobang as General Secretary of the CCP and was notable for his ideas of political reform. In one of his key texts, Advance Along the Road of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics, he outlined his view that China remained in a backward state and needed to develop productive forces in order to reach a desirable level comparable to other major nations. Zhao also believed that the party and state should be separated, a major deviation from the cross-over of party and state functions. Zhao also wanted the party to reform itself, its cadre education and selection, so as to create an elite group of party members dedicated to the reform project. He was ousted from his post after the turmoil of 1989, as his faction was more sympathetic to the protestors. Zhao appeared in front of the protestors on May 19, one day before martial law was declared, begging them to leave the square. He was placed under house arrest after the events of Tiananmen for the rest of his life.

Four Modernizations

Deng's "watchwords" for reform -- focused on modernizing agriculture, industry, science and technology, and national defense. Notably, political reform is absent from these tenets.

Four Cardinal Principles

Supposed to be the main "pillars" of Chinese society and communist party legitimacy. Encouraged people to adhere to 1. the socialist path, 2. people's democratic dictatorship, 3. leadership of the CCP, 4. marxism-leninism Mao Zedong thought. 4 modernizations were China's goal for the future, while the cardinal principles set the party line of how this was going to achieved (within what boundaries, so to speak).

Family responsibility system

Policy that allowed China to move away from Maoist collectivization and strict planning economy. Rural peasant families were assigned plots of land and other assets. Incentives were given to increase production, and each family would sign a contract with a work unit to determine production goals. Importantly, all surplus production outside of this contract was the family's property, effectively. Importantly, this allowed sideline agriculture and small businesses to flourish, previously frowned upon in the Maoist system.

Special Economic Zones

These were spaces of exception to normal Chinese economic practices that allowed for foreign investment and much greater fluidity to a market economy. They were overwhelmingly on the coast --> allowed the CCP to limit reform to specific areas as a kind of "test case." This way, China avoided the example of "shock therapy" as occurred in the Soviet Union. These areas had preferential tax codes and regulation policy that were meant to allow private industry and business to develop along more capitalist/free market lines. Initially only in four cities, but have gradually expanded since this initial "experiment." These areas were still under the control of the CCP and Chinese entrepreneurs, unlike the treaty ports of the past. Millions are lifted out of poverty by the opportunities these create. Masses of migrant workers flock to these cities as they expand rapidly.

four bigs --> 8 bigs

This really highlights the growth of China's consumer economy. 4 bigs under mao's reign in the 1970s: 1. Bike, 2. Radio, 3. watch, 4. sewing machine. Compared to the 8 bigs during the reform era: 1. TV, 2. Fridge, 3. stereo, 4. camera, 5. motorcycle, 6. Furniture set, 7. washing machine, and 8. electric fan. Opening up had allowed for consumer goods to flow into China, raising the standard of living and allowing for this kind of consumption economy to be possible. This was, of course, deeply divided between rural and urban areas.

Socialism with Chinese Characteristics

This was a phrase really coined by Deng and highlighted the ideological shift from Deng to Mao. This view understood China to be in a "primary stage" of socialism that required productive forces to be developed. This meant it was permissible to have some form of market economy to allow China to reach a more modern point, or at least be comparable to its peers around the world. Deng famously stated that "pauperism is not socialism, still less communism," which expressed the idea that socialism's priority in the present stage was to lift China out of its backwards state. This belief also held that China would be able to modernize without becoming radically unequal like in capitalist states, and could also control this modernization so as to not lose its Chinese values (consider the self-strengtheners here with a similar dilemma --> how do we modernize without losing the essence of China).

Democracy Wall

Context: Reform was not all sunshine and roses for everyone. It created a great deal of instability, the potential for unemployment and poverty, and did not deliver any kind of political reforms. The party grew very corrupt, and greasing the wheels of the party became one of the ways to get ahead in China. Smuggling and currency manipulation were persistent problems in reform. Social inequality grew greatly, as did pollution.

One result: in 1978 and 1979, a student movement begins to write and disseminate literature on liberalization and democratization for China, an area that reform has not touched. Wei Jingsheng calls for democracy as a "fifth modernization" to compliment Deng's four. Movement leads to other protests against poor conditions in urban areas.

Party cracks down on the movement, demolishing the wall and its big character posters calling for political reform. Wei is sentenced to 15 years in prison.

spiritual pollution and bourgeois liberalization

1982 -- campaign against "spiritual pollution" launched by the party against things like individualism and elements of popular culture that reflected western values (or non-socialist values).

1985 -- campaign against "bourgeois liberalization" which sought to crackdown on liberal ideas and democratic political movements. Interpreted these ideas as challenging the "four cardinal principles" especially the lines on the socialist path and the rule of the party.

Fang Lizhi

Head of a prominent technical university and a professor of astrophysics. Fang gave many prominent speeches and gained a large student following in 1985-1986 -- ideas help spark student protests in 86/87. Fang saw individual rights and human rights as the basic building blocks of democracy. Democracy necessary to provide these inherent rights with protections. Criticized the party and marxist ideology for failing to deliver modernization throughout its history and for attacking the 'objectivity' of the scientific disciplines.

Student protests spread around urban areas throughout the country, and are joined by some who are discontented with the results of reform itself. Party cracks down on the movement, expelling Fang from the party for criticizing the socialist system, and purging many reform-minded members of the party. Hu Yaobang, a popular reformer, is dismissed from his post as general secretary and he is replaced by Zhao Ziyang. Hu is criticized for not combatting bourgeois liberalization.

Hu Yao Bang

general secretary of the party from 1982-1987. Popular reformer initially allied with Deng's reformist faction. He is expelled from his post after the student movement of 1986-1987 for failing to expunge China of bourgeois liberalization. Hu's death in 1989 becomes a symbolic event for many students, and helps to kick off the protest movements on Tiananmen square in spring of that year.

Jiang Zemin

Succeeded Deng as head of the communist party, and was General Secretary from 1989 to 2002. Jiang was chosen for his handling of the 1989 protests as party secretary in Shanghai. He was able to prevent the protests from reaching critical mass, using dialogue and strict methods of control to maintain order. For this, he was given the party leadership, and largely worked to continue Deng's reform policies.

Li Peng

Premier of China during the events of 1989. He was a prominent member of the conservative faction in the party, and was particularly vilified by the protestors as a symbol of party corruption and anti-democratic structure. Li advocated for a conservative approach to reform and opening up which put him at odds with Zhao Ziyang's more aggressively reformist party.

Tiananmen Square

The symbolic center of Chinese politics -- Great Hall of the People, Mao's memorial Hall, Zhongnanhai, all sit near and around the square. In the spring of 1989, students began to occupy the square in protest against corruption in the party, initially sparked by the death of Hu Yaobang. Student's mourn Hu, a prominent reformer, and use his death to organize against party's anti-democratic policies. Reform was not completely successful and many were discontented at the course it had taken.

April 26, People's Daily Editorial characterizes the student protests as turmoil, which angered the patriotic students. Students also rally for the 70th anniversary of the May 4th movement. May 13th sees hunger strikes raise the stakes. May 17th calls for Deng and Li peng to resign -- the number of people on the square reaches as high as one million.

Stakes are also raised by the fact that USSR premier Gorbachev was meant to visit the PRC during this time. He is directed away from the square to avoid protests. Foreign media presence is high to cover this international meeting.

Zhao Ziyang visits the students on May 19th and asks them to disperse in an emotional message. The CCP declares martial law the next day. Goddess of Democracy statue is put up on May 30, and on June 3/4 the military goes in to clear the square. No shots are fired on the square itself, but there are reports of violence on the routes into the city itself.

Goddess of Democracy

Put up by the protestors on may 30th, this was a large makeshift statue that seemed to resemble the statue of liberty. This highlighted the student's resolve and desire for liberalization. The statue was demolished by PLA tanks on June 4.

Patriotic Education

The party placed a new emphasis on "patriotic education" after the Tiananmen events. This reflects an attempt to lean on nationalist sentiment and nationalist ideology to bolster party legitimacy rather than socialism.

Deng's southern tour

Deng Xiaoping goes on a tour of southern china in 1992. The purpose was to revive plans for continuing reform and opening up that had taken a hit after the events of 1989. Deng wanted to ensure that the legacy of 1989 was not a reversal of reform, and used the tour as a political maneuver to bolster reform elements of the party and kick start the new campaign. The constitution incorporated market socialism as a concept, signifying how Deng's reformism was being codified into the party itself.

Kevin O'Brien "rightful resistance"

This refers to the party allowing for local protests to criticize local party organs for failing to live up to stated party aims. As long as the party itself and the system as a whole are not directly threatened, then allowing some protest can be seen as a sign of strength. O'Brien observed how rural chinese would use the language and promises of the party itself to demand local party organs fulfill those stated goals -- seek influential allies by appealing to accepted ideas and ideology.

Hong Kong, Kowloon, New Territories

Hong Kong was an island ceded to the British in the 1842 treaty of Nanjing. Kowloon penninsula is added to these British territories in 1860. The New Territories to the north of Hong Kong and closer to Shenzhen were ceded to Britain in 1898. These territories composed the whole of British Hong Kong and today's Hong Kong SAR.

Entrepot

Hong Kong was a major commercial center and nexus of importation/exportation. Kind of a window to the outside world for China.

Bamboo Curtain

refers to the division of asia during the cold war between the communist bloc and the western-aligned bloc. Hong Kong-China border was one such area of division.

California/Gold Mountain Trade

Made possible by California's discover of gold in the 1850s, facilitated trade between HK and the West Coast, much faster than getting to HK from the east coast (obviously). HK exports workers in droves to California. Became something like the ellis island of China, receiving lots of back and forth immigration.

Hong King-Canton/Guangzhou strike

1922 seaman's union strikes and workers organize in canton, also the center of KMT political power.

Boycott of 1925-1926

Sparked by the massacre of labor protestors in British and French concessions in 1925. Brings together the student and labor movements for a common nationalist goal. Chinese nationalism is able to cross boundaries of colonization in this movement.

Great Escape

Refers to various waves of mass immigration to HK from the mainland following various political events. There were a couple of major waves, first in 1937-1938 during the outset of the second sino-japanese war. Two great escapes really refer to 1962 and 1978 -- the first after the GLF and slight thaw and the second after the cultural revolution spurred on by announcement of the end of the touch base policy.

Touch base policy

Hong Kong immigration policy that stipulated if an illegal immigrant was able to make it to Kowloon or Hong Kong proper, they were allowed to stay in the country legally. Encouraged illegal immigration in a way.

East River Column

Leftist resistance group operating in and around Hong Kong during the Second Sino-Japanese war. This group was affiliated with the CCP and helped intellectuals get to the Yanan base area.

New China News Agency/Xinhua News Agency

front companies

This refers to a part of China's Hong Kong strategy that sought to influence the Hong Kong economy through corporations that were owned or affiliated with the PRC. One such company was China resources that was able to direct foreign trade through Hong Kong. China also used red capitalists, i.e., business owners sympathetic to the PRC, to help this development strategy that benefited both HK and the PRC.

Joint Declaration and Basic Law

Promulgated in 1984, this was a joint declaration between the PRC and Great Britain, outlining Britain's intention to hand over HK to the PRC in 1997. The declaration outlined the PRC's intent to allow HK's capitalist system to remain unchanged for 50 years. It also claimed to abide by the "one country two systems" principle which allowed for different levels and kinds of development to exist within the same umbrella of China.

The basic law was supposed to govern Hong Kong's political, economic, and social life, but is deeply vague. It promises protections of private property and the free flow of capital, as well as elections, but does not clarify in any way how these elections will be conducted. It also folds all foreign policy and issues of territorial integrity under the CCP.

"one country, two systems"

principle outlined by Deng Xiaoping in 1984. The basic idea was that different parts of China could have different developmental systems and be in different historical stages, so to speak. It affirmed the idea that there were not different Chinas, but rather one nation with differing systems in its constituent parts. This still defines PRC policy vis a vis Taiwan, and informed its relations with Hong Kong as well.

1997 Handover

Refers to the handover of Hong Kong to the PRC. Jiang Zemin interpreted this as an important national event for China on the way to becoming more whole. It was to serve as an example of China's ability to unite with its splintered parts, with Taiwan in particular in mind. Some Hong Kong residents accused the British of not providing enough protections in the basic law, as the PRC opposed universal suffrage and understood consultation to be a form of election. Since 1997, Hong Kong's autonomy and political rights have been steadily eroded.