Psychopathology

Definitions of Abnormality

Statistical Infrequency
Deviation from Social Norms
Failure to Function Adequately
Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

Statistical Infrequency

Deviating from the statistical norm or average of a characteristic
Abnormal behaviours are 2 SD above or below mean

Statistical Infrequency: Example

IQ - lower or higher than average range
Average: 100
2% below 70 and qualify for diagnos9s of intellectual disability disorder

Statistical Infrequency: Evaluation

+ Useful in real world assessments

+ Cut offpoint is objective

- Doesn’t recognise many known disorders

I/D: Cultural Relativity

Deviation from Social Norms

Any behaviour that deviates from the norms that society sets

Deviation from Social Norms Example

Antisocial personality disorder
“Absence of prosocial standards associated with failure to conform …’
Abnormal as they don’t fit our moral standards

Deviation from Social Norms: Evaluation

+ Useful

- Deviance is related to context

I/D Cultural relativity

Failure to Function Adequately

Unable to live a ‘normal’ day to day life
Not possessing a ‘normal’ range of physical abilities, emotions or behaviours

Failure to Function Adequately: Checklist

Rosenhan and Seligman’s Checklist of Dysfunction

Checklist of Dysfunction: Items

Personal distress

Maladaptive behaviour

Unpredictable behaviour

Irrational behaviour

Cause observer discomfort

Deviation from social norms and values

Failure to Function Adequately: Evaluation

+ Represents a sensible threshold for help

- Abnormality isn’t always accompanied by dysfunction (Harold Shipman)

- Functional Dysfunction - attention seeking

I/D: Cultural Relativity

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

Deviation from Jahoda’s ‘normal mental health characteristics

Checklist of Ideal Mental Health Items

No symptoms of distress

Rational and accurate perception of self'

Can self actualise

Can cope with stress

Realistic world view

Good self esteem

Independent of other people

Can successfully work, love and enjoy leisure

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health: Evaluation

- Over demanding criteria

- Changes over time (temporal validity)

I/D: Cultural relativity

Types of Characteristics of Mental Disorders

Behavioural

Emotional

Cognitive

Behavioural Characteristics of Phobias

Panic

Avoidance

Emotional Characteristics of Phobias

Anxiety

Fear

Cognitive Characteristics of Phobias

Irrational Beliefs

Selective attention

Explanation of Phobias: Key Concepts

Classical Conditioning - Development

Stimulus Generalisation

Operant Conditioning - Maintains

Negative Reinforcement

Prevents extinction

Explanation of Phobias: Researcher

Mowrer (1960)

Two-Process Model

Explanation of Phobias: Evaluation

+ Scientific and Falsifiable

+ Support: Little Albert

- Cognitive aspects

I/D: Reductionist

Treating Phobias: Key Concepts

Reciprocal Inhibition

Relaxation

Anxiety Hierarchy

Counterconditioning

Immediate exposure

Treating Phobias: Methods

Systematic Desensitisation (Wolpe 1958)

Flooding

Systematic Desensitisation: McGrath

75% success rate for curing phobias

Systematic Desensitisation: Jones

Little Peter cured of his rabbit phobia

Systematic Desensitisation: Evaluation

+ Effective (McGrath and Jones)

+ Doesn’t require complex thought

- Reciprocal Inhibition unnecessary

Flooding: Evaluation

+ Quicker

+ Cost effective

- Ethics

Treating Phobias: Issues & Debates

Reductionist

Doesn’t account for cognitive

Depression: Behavioural Characteristics

Change to Activity Levels

Disruption to Sleep and Eating Behaviour

Depression: Emotional Characteristics

Low mood

Anger

Depression: Cognitive Characteristics

Irrational Thinking

Poor concentration

Explaining Depression: Key Concepts

Activating Events

Schema

Beliefs

Masturbatory Thinking

Consequences

Negative Triad

Cognitive errors

Explaining Depressions: Theories

Ellis’ ABC Model

Beck’s Negative Cognitive Triad

Types of Cognitive Error

Selective abstraction

Minimisation

Personalisation

Arbitrary inference

Magnification

Overgeneralisation

Explaining Depression: Evaluation

+ Research Support (Grazioli & Terry)

+ Cognitive vulnerability support (Clark & Beck)

+ Development of CBT & screening (Cohen et al)

- ABC model only explains reactive depression not endogenous

I/D: Reductionist

Explaining Depression: Research Support

Grazioli & Terry (2000)
Assessed 65 pregnant women for cognitive vulnerability and depressive thinking before and after birth
Greater vulnerabilty more llikely to suffer post natal depressions

Clark & Beck
Cognitive vulnerability more common in depressed and preceded depression

Explaining Depression: Screening research

Cohen et al
Assessing cognitive vulnerability allows identification of most at risk

Treating Depression: Key Concepts

Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy

ABCDE

Empirical, Logical, Pragmatic Disputing

Behavioural Activation

Unconditional positive regard

Treatment of Negative Automatic Thoughts

Work together

Patient as scientist

Homework tasks

Treating Depression: Methods

Ellis’ Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy

Beck’s Treatment of Negative Automatic Thoughts

Treating Depression: Evaluation

+ CBT effective treatment for other disorders

+ Research Support (March et al)

- High relapse rates

I/D: Nature/Nurture (Should use both cognitive and biological - March et al)

Treating Depression: Research Support

March et al (2007)

Tested effectiveness of CBT vs antidepressants vs both in 327 depressed adolescents

After 36 weeks, 81% of CBT, 81% antidepressants & 86% both were significantly improved

Just as effective as just medication

Treating Depression: Relapse Research

Ali et al (2017)

439 clients every month for 12 months after course finished

42% relapsed within 6 months

53% relapsed within a year

OCD: Behavioral Characteristics

Avoidance

Compulsions

OCD: Cognitive Characteristics

Awareness of Excessive Anxiety

Obsessive Thoughts

OCD: Emotional Characteristics

Self Loathing

Disgust

Fear & Anxiety

OCD: Biological Explanations

Genetic Explanation

Neural Explanation

Genetic Explanation for OCD: Key Concepts

Polygenic

SERT gene - high function
Not enough serotonin at synapse
Low levels cause anxiety

COMT gene - low function
Too much dopamine
High levels implicated with compulsion control

Diathesis stress

Neural Explanation for OCD: Key Concepts

Neurotransmitters

Serotonin

Dopamine

‘Worry circuit’

Orbital Frontal Cortex
Sensory info to thoughts (hazard perception)

Caudate Nucleus
Suppresses signals from OFC (can cause minor hazards to be misperceived

Explanations for OCD: Evaluation

+ Genetic support - Nestadt

- Cause & Effect Serotonin Link
OCD & Depression are comorbid so serotonin may be separate

I/D: Nature/Nurture

Genetic Explanation for OCD Research

Nestadt

Twin study - concordance rate

68% of identical twins shared OCD vs. 31% of non identical twins

Treating OCD: Methods

SSRIs

Tricyclics & SNRIs

Benzodiazepines

SSRIs

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors

Blocks reuptake of serotonin by binding

Left in cleft for longer

More likely to bind to receptor sites

Reduces anxiety → Reduces compulsion

Tricylics & SNRIs

Blocks reuptake mechanism for serotonin & noradrenaline

Benzodiazepines

Slows activity of whole CNS by enhancing GABA (inhibitory)

Reacts with GABA receptors

Opens a channel increasing flow of chloride ions

Makes it harder for neurons to be stimulated

Treating OCD: Evaluation

+ Support for SSRI - Soomro
H More appropriate to take interactionist

- Side Effects, Addiction/Dependency & Only Covers Symptoms
H Requires lttle effort

I/D: Biological Reductionism

SSRI Research

Soomro (2009)

Reviewed 17 studies comparing SSRIs with placebos

All 17 found SSRI more effective in reducing symptoms

Most effective combining SSRI and CBT