AQA Psychology - Issues and Debates (imported)

Idiographic definition

focus on the individual and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature

Doesn't seek to formulate laws or generalise results to others

Nomothetic definition

concerned with establishing general laws based on the study of large groups of people

What research methods do idiographic approaches prefer and why?

case studies, unstructured interviews

Provide an in-depth insight into individual behaviour

AO3 of the idiographic approach

Weaknesses of using unscientific methods e.g. uncontrolled, hard to replicate, low generalisability

Power of case studies e.g. KF generating further research by highlighting flaws within a whole theory

What research methods do nomothetic approaches prefer and why?

research methods: experiments, correlational research

approach is scientific

Statistical and quantitative methods to analyse data

AO3 of nomothetic approach

Benefits of using scientific methods e.g. quantitative methods, controlled, reliable methods

Application of approach - biological approach using drug treatments for mental health issues e.g. OCD/depression

Many approaches in psychology adopt both an idiographic and nomothetic approach e.g. psychodynamic and cognitive

Idiographic examples

Case study KF in memory - STM of auditory information better than visual, STM consists of multiple components. KF = undermined model of MSM

Nomothetic examples

Biological approach e.g. OCD, depression as they pinpoint a biological factor e.g. neurotransmitters that are responsible for these disorders.

Behaviourist approach e.g. Pavlov and Skinner, experiments on animals in order to establish laws of learning (classical/operant) that is generalised to humans

Cognitive approach e.g. MSM applied to everyone

Nature definition

view that behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors

Locke = new born infants born as a tabula rasa (blank slate)

Nurture definition

behaviour is the product of environmental influences anything outside the body e.g. people, events, physical world

Heredity definition

process in which traits are passed down from one generation to the next

Interactionist approach to nature vs nurture

where nature and nurture overlap and work together to shape human behaviour.

Examples of nature

Bowlby: children come into the world biologically programmed to attach in order to help survival

Example of nurture

explaining attachment through classical conditioning where infant attaches as they associate primary caregiver with pleasure e.g. food. Then attachment is maintained via operant conditioning

Examples of the interactionist approach

genetic disorder PKU which is expressed by recessive alleles however low protein diet for first 12 years can avoid it

AO3 of Nature vs nurture

Nature and nurture have become so complex; many psychologists see it as meaningless

Plomin et al: genetic influences on parental behaviour creates a particular environment which can determine aspects of behaviour e.g. parent with gene for mental health = unsettled home, child suffers mental health due to genetics, home life or both

Neural plasticity suggests how life experiences shape our biology

Maguire et al - London taxi drivers had a larger hippocampus size

Blackmore and Cooper - Kittens raised in isolation seeing either vertical or horizontal stripes. When placed in world at 5 months, they couldn't see lines of opposite orientation

Diathesis-stress model - born with a biological vulnerability such as a gene for depression but an environmental factor/stressor will trigger it

Research suggests not everyone with the gene will develop the disorder depression

Reductionist definition

belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts

Best way to look at behaviour is to break it down and use the simplest explanation to explain how it works

Holism definition

Human behaviour should be viewed as whole integrated experiences and not separate parts

Biological reductionism

biological psychologist attempt to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain using neurones, neurotransmitters etc.

Environmental reductionism

assume all behaviour can be reduced to the simple building blocks of stimulus-response association that complex behaviour is a series of S-R chains.

Example of holist approach

gestalt psychology (holistic approach to perception: when we perceive something in the real world, we see it as a whole rather than a collective part)

humanistic approach = react to stimuli as a whole

Example of the biological approach

OCD is caused by neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin

Example of environmental reductionism

behavioural approach to explaining phobias - caused by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning

Levels of explanations and examples

Behaviour can be explained by different levels

Biological - OCD is caused by neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin

Psychological - OCD - obsessive thoughts

Cultural - Odd/irrational behaviours caused by OCD

AO3 of holism and reductionism

Psychology as a science

experimental reductionism: human behaviour can be studied effectively in simple experiments where complex behaviour is reduced to isolated variables

This allows you to study different factors that influence human behaviour in a controlled manner whilst you can establish causal relationship

Approaches tend to be based off non-human animals so it is difficult to generalise as humans live in a complex social world

SSRI for OCD as a biological treatment. Drug therapies that can manipulate levels of hormones to help treat mental health disorders

HOWEVER - it isn't always successful and it treats the symptoms but not the cause = chance of relapse. Not always ethical to change people's hormones/genes

Reductionism is limited

lead to error in understanding ignores complexity of behaviour e.g. depression. It could be inaccurate to reduce behaviour down as many factors could be involved purely biological treatment may be inadequate as holism attempts to overcome this criticism by looking at all levels of explanations

Holistic approaches don't establish cause and effect because they don't investigate behaviour in terms of operationalised variable

Androcentric definition

dominated by males. In the past, most psychologists were males and the theories they produce tend to be based around a male view on the world.

Alpha bias definition

exaggerate the differences between males and females

Beta bias definition

ignored or minimised sex differences. Theories often assume that findings from males can be equally applied to females

Gender bias definition

the differential treatment and/or representation of males and females based on stereotypes and not real differences

Examples of Gender bias

Approaches: alpha bias as women are seen as inferior compared to males as Freud believed there was genuine differences between males and females. Young females were inferior to males as they suffered penis envy

Fight or flight: beta bias as they assumed male findings on applied to females.

Social influence: Zimbardo's study conducted only on males and assumed conformity to roles is the same for females.

AO3 of gender bias

Taylor et al came up with a theory to overcome the beta bias. Development of tend and befriend

Abu Ghraib women in real life prison also were perpetrators of the abusive behaviour

Implications of gender bias research can be problematic and show that is isn't just a methodological issue. Failing to challenge negative stereotypes Validation of discrimination

Illustrates that there are real biological differences between genders. Therefore, we need to review our facts about gender and use this to support women. Eagly: acknowledged women may be less effective leaders than males and this should be used to aid in training etc. to create more female leaders.

Free will definition

idea that we can play an active role and have choice in how we behave. Individuals are free to choose their behaviours and are self determined.

Determinism definition

free will is an illusion, our behaviour is governed by internal and external forces over which we have no control

Soft determinism definition

behaviour is constrained by the environment or biological make up but only to a certain extent

Hard determinism definition

forces outside of our control e.g. biological/past experiences shape our behaviour

Biological determinism definition

all human behaviour is innate and determined by genes

Environmental determinism definition

behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual e.g. previous experiences - learnt through classical and operant conditioning

Psychic determinism definition

Claims human behaviour is the result of childhood and innate drives

Example of biological determinism

psychopathology - OCD is partly genetic. If 1st degree relative has OCD, 5x more likely to have OCD

Example of environmental determinism

psychopathology - phobias acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning

Psychic determinist example

gender - gendered behaviours are acquired during the phallic stage or development through the oedipus complex where children identify with the same sex parents

Free will example

Within Maslows hierachy of need people are free agents to seek out the stages of the hierachy

AO3 of free will vs determinism

Concept of free will isn't falsifiable. If psychology tries to be scientific, the concept of free will isn't scientific as it can't be falsified. You can't test the idea of free will.

Universality definition

Research, theories and explanations often aim to represent universal human behaviour.

Cultural bias

If the 'norm' or 'standard' for a particular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of a particular culture, then any cultural differences in behaviour that deviate from this standard will be seen as abnormal, 'inferior' or 'unusual'

Ethnocentrism definition

Judging other cultures by the standards and values of one's own culture. At an extreme it is the belief that there is superiority of one's own culture and this can lead to prejudice and discrimination

Cultural relativism definition

The idea that norms, values and ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood within specific social and cultural contexts.

Example of cultural bias - beta bias

Ainsworth Strange Situation reflects only the values of American culture

The idea of a secure attachment was shown as showing moderate distress etc upon separation in USA

In germany, they emphasise the independence so they appeared as 'cold'

AO3 of cultural bias

western psychology has been a tool of oppression and dominance. Cultural bias has also made it difficult for psychologists to separate the behaviour they have observed from the context in which they observed it

Indigenous psychologies - development of different groups of theories in different countries

Afrocentrism: research in Africa need to be African centred and express African values

The increase in travel and community means there is an increase in understanding of other cultures. International conferences where researchers meet and exchange ideas should reduce the bias

Ethical issues definition

Issues that arise when there is conflict between the rights of the ps and the aims of the researcher

Ethical implications definition

Considers the impact or consequences that psychological research has on the rights of other people in wider context, not just the participants

Socially sensitivity definition

Socially sensitive to describe studies where there are potential social consequences for the ps or the group of people represented by the research

4 things Sieber and Stanley say researchers should consider when conducting socially sensitive research

1) The research question

- most consider their question carefully e.g. are there racial differences in IQ? vs is intelligence inherited?

2) The methodology used

- researchers needs to consider the treatment of the ps and their rights to confidentiality and anonymity

3)The institutional context

- researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and who is funding the researc

4) Interpretation and application of the findings

- researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real world

Example of socially sensitive research

Milgram

- results could be used to ensure that people obey orders, including those they don't wish to follow

Ethical implications of Bowlby

Bowlby: has contributed to the development of childcare practices.

Encouraged the view that a women's place is at home with her children which could make some mothers guilty for wanting to return to work

Ethical issues in socially sensitive research : Privacy

researcher might extract more information than the ps intended to give

Ethical issues in SSR: confidentiality

ps may be less willing to give information in the future if confidentiality is breached

Ethical issues in SSR: Valid methodology

Poor methodology leads to invalid findings

E.g. MMR linked to autism

Ethical issues in SSR: Deception

Self deception: Research can lead to people forming untrue stereotypes which can affect ones own performance

Ps are lied to about the true aim or it is covered up

Ethical issues in SSR: Informed consent

Telling ps what is involved to give them full knowledge on what they're expecting

Ethical issues in SSR: Equitable treatment

Must be treated equitably

Can't withhold resources that are vital for wellbeing

Regardless of scientific usefulness

Ethical issues in SSR: Scientific freedom

Duty vs obligation

Duty to investigate

Obligation not to harm

Ethical issues in SSR: Ownership of data

Who really owns the data?

researcher? university? funding company

Ethical issues in SSR: Values

Psychologists differ in subjective vs objective approach to research

Problems arise when researchers and recipient have differing opinions

Ethical issues in SSR: Risk/benefit ratio

Risk and costs need to be minimised

AO3 of SSR and Ethical implications in research

Some groups in society are missed out of research e.g. elderly, minorities which makes results unrepresentative

Minorities could be marginalised and misrepresented. Could mean they miss out on potential benefits of research as well

Issues focus on the individual which means SSR has increased potential to have further implications. Not sufficient to safeguard the individual

Researchers engaging with the media.

It is the responsibility of the researcher to ensure their research is promoted in a socially sensitive way.

Need to be aware of the possible uses of their research (abuse, discrimination, etc.)