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AP Psychology Unit 1 part 1
What do biological psychologists do?
use advanced technologies to study the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) processes and psychological processes; They work from a biological perspective; are announcing discoveries about the interplay of biology, behavior, and mind
What are four things that researchers are seeking to understand the biology of the mind have discovered?
our adaptive brain is wired by our experiences
among the body's cells are nerve cells that conduct electricity and "talk" to one another by sending chemical messages across a tiny gap that separates them
specific brain systems serve specific functions
we integrate information processed in these different brain systems to construct our experience of sights and sounds, meaning and memories, pain and passion
What is meant that humans are considered biopsychosocial systems?
we are each a system composed of subsystems that are in turn composed of even smaller subsystems
Why is it a benefit that there is not much difference between the brains of humans and animals?
similarities allow researchers to study simple animals to understand the neural systems we explore; studying other mammals' brains helps understand the organization of our own
What are neurons?
nerve cells that are the basic building block of the nervous system
What is the function of the cell body in a neuron?
contains nucleus; the cell's life support center
What is the function of the dendrite in a neuron?
neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
What is the function of the axon in a neuron?
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
What is the function of the myelin sheath in a neuron?
fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
How is the myelin sheath related to multiple sclerosis?
if the myelin sheath degenerates, the communication to muscles slows, with eventual loss of muscle control
What are glial cells?
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
What is a neuron's action potential?
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Describe the chemical events that allow neurons to fire.
Neurons fire when ions flow through their selectively permeable membrane, disrupting the resting potential. This change in electrical charge generates an action potential, allowing the neuron to transmit a signal.
How do the security parameters change when a neuron fires? How often can this process repeat?
axon opens its gates, sodium ion flood in, the loss of inside/ outside difference (depolarization) causes the next axon channels to open, like falling dominos; temporary inflow of positive ions is the neural impulse (action potential); 100-1000x/sec
What is depolarization?
the loss of the inside/outside charge difference causes the next section of axons to open like falling dominos
What is action potential?
the change in electrical potential associated of an impulse in a nerve cell; temporary inflow of positive ions
What are excitatory signals?
increase likelihood that neuron will fire (like pushing a gas pedal); if these signals > inhibitory signals, combined signals trigger action potential
What are inhibitory signals?
decrease likelihood that neuron will fire (like pushing breaks)
What is the threshold?
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
What is the refractory period?
a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state
What is the all-or-none response?
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.
Where is the synapse?
junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and dendrite or cell boy of the receiving neuron
Relating to the synapse, what is the tiny gap at the junction called?
synaptic cleft/gap
What are neurotransmitters?
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
What happens after a neurotransmitter is released?
neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
What occurs during reuptake?
neurotransmitter unlocks tiny channels at the receiving site and electronically charged atoms flow in, exciting or inhibiting the receiving neuron's readiness to fire; excess neurotransmitters drift away, are broken down by enzymes, or are reabsorbed by the sending neuron
Particular neurotransmitter affect specific: ____ & ____
behaviors and emotions
What is the function of Acetylcholine (ACh)?
enables muscle action, learning, memory
What is an example of malfunctions of the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine (ACh)?
with alzheimer's disease, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate (all movement)
How to remember the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine?
ACh: Alzheimer's, muscle Action; ACE EXAM
What is the function of dopamine?
influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion, PLEASURE/REWARD
What is an example of malfunctions of the neurotransmitter dopamine?
oversupply linked to schizophrenia; undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease
What is a way to remember the neurotransmitter dopamine?
dopaMINE: MINE MINE MINE; pursuit of pleasure
What is the function of the neurotransmitter serotonin?
affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
What is an example of malfunctions of the neurotransmitter serotonin?
undersupply linked to depression; some antidepressant drugs raise these levels; dreams
What is a way to remember the neurotransmitter serotonin?
seROTONin: avoid rotten FOOD, MOOD, SLEEP
What is the function of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine?
helps control alertness and arousal; heightened sensitivity
What is an example of malfunctions of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine?
undersupply can depress mood; involved in sleep cycle
What is the function of the neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)?
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter
What is an example of malfunctions of the neurotransmitter GABA?
undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomni; anxiety-related distress
What is a way to remember the neurotransmitter GABA?
G et
A
Break
Adjustment
What is the function of the neurotransmitter glutamate?
a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory; enhances learning by strengthening synaptic connections
What is an example of malfunctions of the neurotransmitter glutamate?
oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures
What is a way to remember the neurotransmitter glutamate?
EXCITED to be GLUed to your MATE
What is the function of the neurotransmitter epinephrine (adrenaline)?
neurotransmitter and hormone that boosts energy in chemicals in "fight or flight"
What is the function of the neurotransmitter substance p?
similar to endorphin; body's PAIN neurotransmitter; works with endorphins to regulate pain; signals body IN pain
[endorphins triggered to inhibit pain signal]
What are endorphins and give an example of what they can do?
natural painkiller; "morphine within" natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure
runner' high, prolonged exercise, acupuncture, indifference to pain in severe injuries; triggered to inhibit pain signal
What is a way to remember endorphins?
ENDorphins END pain
What happens when the brain is flooded with opiate drugs such as heroin and morphine?
brain maintains its chemical balance by suppressing its own natural opiates; when the drug is withdrawn, the brain may be deprived of any form of opiate, causing intense discomfort
What is an agonist?
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action
What is an antagonist?
a molecule the decreases or blocks a neurotransmitter's action/ production/ release
What is the nervous system?
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
What is the central nervous system?
brain and spinal cord
What is the peripheral nervous system?
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
What makes up nerves?
bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
What are the four parts of the peripheral nervous system?
somatic nervous system
autonomic nervous system
sympathetic nervous system
parasympathetic nervous system
What makes up the somatic nervous system?
the division of peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles (skeletal nervous system)
What makes up the autonomic nervous system?
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs
Where is the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system located?
autonomic nervous system
What is the sympathetic nervous system?
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations; "fight or flight"
What is the parasympathetic nervous system?
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy; "rest and digest"
What does it mean "the brain enables our humanity"?
thinking, feeling, and acting; tens of billions of neurons, each communicating with thousands of other neurons, yield and ever-changing wiring diagram
Approximately how many neurons in the central nervous system?
86 billion
What are neural networks?
the brain's neurons cluster into work groups
Neurons that ___ together ___ together, helping learning occur
FIRE, WIRE
What is the spinal cord, and how does it work?
two-way information highway connecting the peripheral nervous system and the brain
What are reflexes?
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
What happens if the spinal cord is severed?
You would be out of touch with your body. You would lose all sensation and voluntary movement in body regions with sensory and motor connections to the spinal cord below its point of injury.
What is the endocrine system?
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
What are hormones?
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
What happens when hormones act on the brain?
they influence our interest in sex, food, and aggression
How is the endocrine system similar to the nervous system?
both produce molecules that act on receptors elsewhere
How are the endocrine and nervous systems different?
nervous system: zips messages from the eye to the brain in fraction of a second
endocrine system: messages trudge along in the bloodstream; taking several seconds to travel; gland to the target issue
What is the pituitary gland? Why is it the most influential endocrine gland?
under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth (physical development) and controls other endocrine glands
What is a lesion?
tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
how else can scientists observe brain functions?
electrically, chemically, or magnetically stimulate various parts of the brains and note the effects
What is an EEG; electroencephalogram, and for what purpose is it used?
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface; these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
What is magnetoecenphatography?
MEG; brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electricity activity
What is the purpose of this neuroimaging technique: CT computed tomography scan?
a series of x-ray photos taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure
What is the purpose of this neuroimaging technique: PET positron emission tomography?
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given tasks
What is the purpose of this neuroimaging technique: MRI magnetic resonance imaging?
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue; show brain ANATOMY
What is the purpose of this neuroimaging technique: fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging?
a technique for revealing blood flow, and therefore, brain ACTIVITY by comparing successive MRI scans; show brain FUNCTION and STRUCTURE
List a couple examples of how animals' capacities come from brain structures.
primitive animals (sharks): a not so complex brain; mostly regulates basic survival functions (breathing, resting, feeding)
lower mammals (rodents): a more complex brain; enables emotion and greater memory
What is the hindbrain?
medulla, pons, cerebellum; directs essential survival functions (breathing, sleeping, wakefulness, coordination, and balance)
What is the midbrain?
found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information
What makes the brain of advanced mammals more complex?
(humans) a brain that processes more information enables increased foresight as well
What is the brainstem?
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions
What is the medulla?
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
What is the reticular formation/ reticular activated system?
a nerve network through the brainstem to the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal; filters incoming sensory stimuli
What is the thalamus?
sensory control center; atop the brainstem;
-directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and
-transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla;
-SENSORY SWITCHBOARD; except smell
What is the cerebellum?
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include
-processing sensory input,
-coordinating movement output and balance, and
-enabling nonverbal learning and
-memory (procedural memories): tying a shoe or riding a bicycle
These older brain functions all occur without ___
any conscious effort
What is the limbic system?
emotional headquarters
amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus
located below the cerebral hemispheres, associated with emotions and drives
What is the amydala?
lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
Is the amygdala the only area that controls rage and fear? Explain.
the brain is not organized into neat structures that correspond to our behavior categories; when we feel afraid, there is neural activities in many areas of our brain
What is the hypothalamus?
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it
-directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature),
-helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is
-linked to emotion and reward.
Why is it referred to as the reward center?
rather than attribute human feelings to rats, today's scientists refer to reward centers, not "pleasure centers"
What is the hippocampus?
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit conscious memories of names, images, facts and events
What is the cerebrum?
newer neural networks within the cerebellum form specialized work teams that enable our perceiving, thinking, and speaking
What is the cerebral cortex?
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
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