AP PSYCHOLOGY UNIT 7

Attribution

The process of explaining the causes of behavior and events, divided into dispositional (internal) and situational (external) attributions.

Explanatory style

A psychological attribute that indicates how people explain the events in their life, typically as optimistic or pessimistic.

Optimistic

An attitude characterized by hopefulness and confidence about the future or the successful outcome of something.

Pessimistic

An attitude characterized by a lack of hope and a tendency to focus on the negative aspects of a situation.

Actor/observer bias

The tendency to attribute one's own actions to situational factors while attributing others' actions to their dispositions.

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in judging others' behavior.

Self-serving bias

The habit of attributing positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to external factors.

Locus of control

The degree to which individuals believe they have control over the outcome of events in their lives; can be internal or external.

Mere exposure effect

A psychological phenomenon whereby people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A belief or expectation that influences a person’s behavior in a way that causes the belief to become true.

Social comparison

The process of determining one's own social and personal worth by comparing oneself to others, which can be upward or downward.

Relative deprivation

The perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself.

Stereotype

A widely held but oversimplified and generalized belief about a particular group of people.

Prejudice

A preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience, often directed against a particular group.

Discrimination

Unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, often based on race, age, or sex.

Implicit attitude

An unconscious evaluation or association that can influence a person's feelings, behaviors, or perceptions.

Just-world phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Out-group homogeneity bias

The tendency to see members of an out-group as being more similar to each other than they really are.

In-group homogeneity bias

The tendency to see members of one's own group as being more diverse than members of an out-group.

Ethnocentrism

The belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group and the tendency to view other groups from one's own cultural perspective.

Belief perseverance

The phenomenon where people hold on to their beliefs even when evidence contradicts them.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs.

Cognitive dissonance

The mental discomfort experienced when holding two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or ideas.

Social norms

Explicit or implicit rules that govern the behavior of members of a society.

Normative social influence

The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them.

Informational social influence

The influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information.

Persuasion

The process of changing someone's attitudes or behaviors through communication.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A theory explaining how attitudes are formed and changed, with two routes: central (deep processing) and peripheral (superficial processing).

Halo effect

The cognitive bias where the perception of one positive trait leads to the assumption of other positive traits.

Foot-in-the-door technique

A persuasive tactic that involves making a small request to increase the chances of a larger request being granted later.

Door-in-the-face technique

A persuasive tactic that involves making a large request that is likely to be refused, followed by a smaller request.

Conformity

The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.

Obedience

Compliance with the commands of a person in authority.

Individualism

A social pattern that emphasizes the individuality and personal freedom of the individual.

Collectivism

A social pattern that emphasizes the interdependence of individuals within groups.

Multiculturalism

The presence and coexistence of multiple cultural groups within a society.

Polarization

The process of attitudes becoming more extreme as a result of group discussions.

Groupthink

A psychological phenomenon in which the desire for harmony in a decision-making group leads to irrational or dysfunctional decision-making.

Diffusion of responsibility

A sociopsychological phenomenon where individuals feel less responsible to act when in a group.

Social loafing

The tendency for individuals to put forth less effort when working in a group than when working individually.

Deindividualization

A psychological state characterized by reduced self-awareness and diminished self-regulation, often occurring in group settings.

Social facilitation

The tendency for people to perform differently when in the presence of others compared to when alone.

False consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

Superordinate goals

Goals that require the cooperation of two or more groups and can lead to the reduction of intergroup conflict.

Social traps

Situations in which individuals or groups are drawn into actions that are immediately rewarding but lead to negative outcomes.

I/O psychologist

An industrial-organizational psychologist who studies human behavior in the workplace.

Burnout

A state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by prolonged and excessive stress.

Altruism

The selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Social reciprocity norm

The expectation that people will respond to each other's positive actions with similar kinds of actions.

Social responsibility norm

The expectation that people will help those who depend on them.

Bystander effect

The social psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.