Period Seven: 1890-1945

america's changing society + culture, the causes + effects of global wars, and economic meltdown

debates over imperialism

• frederick jackson turner’s frontier thesis: frontier + western movement is baked into american DNA → better future, relieve urban tension

• 1890: all parts of frontier are settled (census bureau), closed

• imperialists: expand beyond borders, manifest destiny, superiority of american institutions + whiteness, mission from God

• international darwinism

• survival of the fittest applied to competition among nations + races over colonies, power, and influence → extension of manifest destiny

• anti-imperialists: against expansion → self-determination (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness) should apply to everyone, colonizing would involve the us in international conflicts — isolationism

• spanish-american war

• cuba: highly desirable for us expansion

• uss maine exploded in havana harbor (1898), sensational (yellow) journalists exaggerated the news, blame spanish + war is declared

• america wins easily, effects are massive → beginning of american empire (acquire philippines, caribbean + pacific islands, puerto rico, guam, hawaii)

• lots of revolts against american involvements

• spanish misrule of cuba

• easy win for america, establishment of teddy roosevelt as a war hero

• teller amendment: congressional authorization of the war, us has no intent of political control of cuba

• platt amendment: us keeps naval bases in cuba + can intervene in cuban affairs to maintain order

• pan-american conference (1889)

• establish better relations with south america → reduce tariff rates

• establishment pan-american union

• goal of political + economic hemispheric cooperation

• invocation of the monroe doctrine

• boundary dispute, britain v venezuela

• president cleveland threatens military force

• latin america appreciates perceived protection, british/american relations improve

• open door policy

• all nations should have equal trading rights in china

• prevent us from losing access to china (others have already established influence)

• boxer rebellion

• nationalism + xenophobia in china, crushed by international force

• sum of reparations weakened its imperial regime

• panama canal

• roosevelt starts + ends panama independence work vs. colombia

• construction from 1904-191

• gentlemen's agreement

• san francisco legalized segregation of japanese children

• us agreed to stop if japan limited migration into the us

• roosevelt corollary

• addition to the monroe doctrine which stated that the us reserved the right to intervene in latin american affairs if said interference would preserve law + order

• dollar diplomacy

• taft's belief in the use of a country's financial power to extend its influence internationally (economic influence > military force)

• moral diplomacy

• wilson's policy to condemn imperialism + unnecessary interference in latin american affairs → promoted peace + spread democracy in foreign affairs

the progressive movement

• muckrakers: investigative journalists who exposed corruption in american society

• upton sinclair (the jungle), ida tarbell (history of standard oil company → john d rockefeller)

• alerted public to inequities, promote reform → eg. meat inspection act

• efficiency in government

• inspired by frederick taylor (scientific management/taylorism – high scrutiny on efficiency in manufacturing)

• progressives apply these tactics to government waste

• voter participation: increase turnout

• secret ballot: vote without pressure

• direct election of senators

• initiative, referendum, recall: people can hold politicians accountable

• conservation + preservation

• pragmatism

• practical approach to morals, ideals, and knowledge

• experimentation with laws to find well-functioning democratic society

• rejected laissez-faire

• 16th amendment: established income tax

• 17th amendment: direct election of us senators instead of by state legislatures

• federal reserve act

• established national banking system with 12 district banks

• supervised by a federal reserve board

• clayton antitrust act

• by strengthened provisions of sherman antitrust act

• new freedom

• coined by woodrow wilson

• limiting big business + big government

• support small businesses

• end corruption

• labor movement

• square deal

• 1902 coal strike

• americans feared they'd freeze when winter came

• roosevelt threatened sending troops against mine owners if they continued to refuse to compromise

• compromise: 10% wage increase, 9-hour workday; employers don't have to recognize unions

• the jungle

• book written on horrors of workers' experiences in factories, led to increased food safety through the pure food and drug + meat inspection acts

• socialist labor party/socialist party of america

• welfare of the working class

• more radical than progressives

• 8 hour work day, pensions for employees, public ownership of utilities

• child labor act

• prohibited shipment of goods produced by workers under the age of 14

• elkins act

• gave the interstate commerce commission more power to control railroads from giving preference to certain customers

• hepburn act

• used the interstate commerce commission to regulate the maximum charge that railroads could place on shipping goods

• civil rights

• web du bois, booker t washington → naacp, niagara movement

• abolish all forms of segregation

• increase educational opportunities for black children

• end violence against the black population

• national urban league

• aided migration from south → north

• great migration (during/after wwi) black people leave the south, move to north/west for economic opportunity but continue to face racism

• gender equality

• national american women's suffrage association (nawsa)

• give women the right to vote → women's empowerment helps them take care of their families

• national women's party

• split from nawsa

• militant suffragists eg. alice paul

• focused on presidential/congressional support for a constitutional amendment

• 19th amendment: grants women the right to vote

• passed due to outrage of treatment of suffragettes, women's role on the home front during wwi

• the red scare

• anti-communist hysteria caused by lots of unhappiness at home after the war, manifests through xenophobia following 1917 russian revolution

• palmer raids: looking for evidence of socialists/communists, mass incarceration of suspects

• prohibition

• 18th amendment (1919): bans alcohol, enforced by volstead act

• speakeasies + bootlegging

• increase in organized crime → al capone

• repealed by 21st amendment (1933)

• progressive presidents: roosevelt, taft, wilson

• trust busting by enforcing sherman antitrust act

• conservationism → protect natural landscapes + resources

• forest reserve act

world war i

• unrestricted submarine warfare by germans → sinking us merchant + passenger ships eg. lusitania, sussex

• lusitania

• british ship carrying 128 american passengers sunk by germans; no sinking of passenger ships without warning

• sussex pledge

• germany pledges not to sink passenger or merchant ships without warning after wilson's threats following the sinking of merchant ship sussex

• national defense act

• increased regular army size

• congress commissioned the construction of warships

• zimmerman telegram

• intercepted telegram to mexico from germany

• germany would help mexico regain its stolen lands in exchange for an alliance against america

• aroused nationalist anger of americans

• selective service act

• draft 21-30 (later 18-45) year old men into military

• wilson: declaration of war issued to make world safe for democracy

• total war: leveraging all assets to fight

• wilson establishes wartime organizations that are managed with progressive efficiency

• centralized control over raw materials + prices + railroads

• wartime production revitalized american industries, rural → urban migration for economic opportunity significant restriction of civil liberties (eg. espionage act: imprison folks to interfere with military draft – schenck v united states → government can censor speech if there is “clear and present danger” to speech)

• sedition act of 1918: illegal to publicly criticize government

• wilson's fourteen points

• detailed list of war aims by president wilson

• address causes of wwi, prevent another ww

• freedom of the seas

• stop secret treaties

• reduce national armaments

• adjustment of colonial claims

• self-determination

• removal of trade barriers

• create league of nations

• treaty of versailles

• david lloyd george (uk) — georges clemenceau (france) — vittorio orlando (italy) — woodrow wilson (us)

• europe wants revenge against germany

• disarm, strip of colonies

• heavy monetary reparations

• article x: charters league of nations

• irreconcilables v. reservationists

• irreconcilables: members of congress that didn't accept us membership into the league no matter what

• reservationists: could accept us admission if reservations were added to article x

• wilson rejects compromise → us doesn't ratify treaty of versailles or join the league

• dawes plan

• cycle of payment between us, france and britain, + germany

• france + britain paid debt to us → us loaned germany money to rebuild economy → germany paid reparations to france + britain

• eased financial problems

• collapsed during the great depression

innovations in communication technology in the 1920s

• the "roaring '20s"

• improved standard of living

• increased wealth inequality

• consumer-based economy

• ads, cars, credit

• wages rise but union movement is pushed back

• jazz age → new city culture

• radio + movies

• celebrities replace politicians as heroes

• revolt against sexual taboos + more promiscuity → female sexual liberation

• new divorce laws

• compulsory education, universal high school education

• harlem renaissance

• development of black culture following the great migration; new forms of art eg. jazz (eg. louis armstrong), writers eg. langston hughes

• religion

• modernism: accept the theory of evolution without having to abandon religious beliefs

• fundamentalism: accept bible as literal truth

• resurgence of the kkk

• lower/middle class white protestants

• anti-black, catholic, jewish, communist, foreigner

• had strong political influences in indiana + texas

• business boomed due to increased productivity, new energy tech, government policy

• productivity: frederick taylor’s principles of scientific management increases efficiency (eg. henry ford’s assembly line, repeat job over and over and over) → mass production + mass consumption

• energy tech: increased use of oil, electricity to power factories + fuel new vehicles

• government policy: government abandons progressive trust policy, doesn’t enforce legislation against monopolies/trusts, offers corporate tax cuts, etc.

• leads to economic boom

• communication technology: radio, movies → mass culture spread, centralized message of what american families look, think, and dress like

• urbanization

• 1920 → 50%+ of americans live in cities

• most middle class women expected to remain home + bear children (cult of domesticity) – urban centers offered more workforce opportunities eg. nursing + teaching

• immigrants: immigration spiked (catholics + jews from eastern europe), obligatory nativist response

• immigration quotas limit the amount of immigrants allowed in from certain places

• harder for eastern european + asian immigrants to come

• new forms of art + literature

• “lost generation” writers disillusioned by sacrifices of wwi, religious hypocrisy (eg. f scott fitzgeraly, ernest hemingway)

• crisis in american values, eg. religion → modernist v fundamentalist protestants

• scopes monkey trial: public’s view – fundamentalism can’t defend itself against modern principles

the great depression + the new deal

• RELIEF [for unemployed] — RECOVERY [for businesses] — REFORM [of economic institutions]

• sparked attitudes of insecurity and economic concern

• more women in the labor force, paid less

• causes

• dependence on + excessive use of credit

• stock market speculation

• overproduction of consumer goods

• weak farm economy

• government policies

• effects

• ended republican domination in government

• expansion of federal government, increased power

• social effects felt by all classes

• increased unemployment + homelessness

1. establishment of hoovervilles

• [attempted] resolutions

• reconstruction finance corporation (rfc)

1. established under hoover

2. supporting railroads, banks, insurance companies, and other financial institutions

3. benefits would "trickle down"

• democrats believed it would only benefit the rich

• farm holiday association

1. tried to reverse the drop in prices by stopping all grain harvested in 1932 from reaching the market — collapsed following violence

• 20th amendment: shortened period between presidential election + inauguration

1. result of lame duck period of hoover

• fdr's economic policy → keynesian economics (government intervention) rather than hands-off laissez faire policy

• the new deal: relief

• three rs: relief - recovery - reform

• first hundred days: congress passed every law presented by roosevelt

1. bank holiday

• closed all banks until government examiners could investigate their financial condition; only sound/solvent banks were allowed to reopen

2. 21st amendment: ended prohibition

• roosevelt's fireside chats built connections + provided reassurance

• financial recovery + reform programs

1. emergency banking relief act

2. glass-steagall act

3. home owners loan corporation (holc)

4. farm credit administration

• relief for the unemployed

1. federal emergency relief administration (fera)

2. public works administration (pwa)

3. civilian conservation corps (ccc)

4. tennessee valley authority (tva)

• additional programs

1. civil works administration (cwa)

2. federal housing administration (fha)

3. national recovery administration (nra)

• reasonable profits for businesses

• fair hours + wages for labor

• set wage/hour codes

• right to organize + collective bargain

4. the agricultural adjustment administration (aaa)

• essentially the nra for farming

• encouraged farmers to reduce production to boost prices

• offered to pay government subsidies for acres plowed

• declared unconstitutional (1935)

• second new deal

• first two years of roosevelt's term: recovery

• second new deal: relief + reform

1. works progress administration (wpa)

2. resettlement administration (ra)

3. national labor relations act

4. social security act

• federal insurance program based on collection of payments throughout people's working careers

• judicial reorganization bill (1937)

1. remove supreme court as a barrier to roosevelt's legislation

2. allow roosevelt to add 6 more justices

3. [rightfully] deemed a court packing bill

4. seen as a dictatorial move to get around checks + balances

5. does not pass the vibe check

• congress of industrial organizations

1. some members of the american federation of labor wanted universal membership

2. formed the committee of organizations within the afl

• suspended by afl, becomes independent organization

• formed congress of industrial organizations

• fair labor standards act (1938)

1. regulations on business + interstate commerce

• minimum wage

• child labor laws

• time + 1/2 for overtime

2. only major reform of roosevelt's second term

• glass-steagall act: increased regulation of banks, limited their investment of people’s money

• federal deposit insurance corporation (fdic): insured bank deposits with federal dollars → failure of banks had caused great depression

• social security act: collected a portion of workers’ wages and paid it to them after retirement

• american liberty league

• established by republican opponents to the new deal

• wanted to stop the new deal from subverting the us economic + political system

• dust bowl

• poor farming practices + high winds blew away topsoil of agricultural regions

• many migrate east to find factory jobs

• soil conservation service (1935) → teach better farming practices

• indian reorganization (wheeler-howard) act

• restored tribal ownership of lands, recognized tribal constitutions + government, and provided loans for economic development

• manchuria

• japan violated open door policy + league of nations

• invaded manchuria → threatened world peace

• league of nations unable to maintain peace

• good neighbor policy

• roosevelt wanted to continue hoover's attempts at good relations with latin america

1. dollar diplomacy no longer profitable due to depression

2. wanted an ally against the rise of facist regimes in europe

• pan american conferences

• us pledges not to intervene in latin american affairs

• us warned against european acts of aggression in the western hemisphere

world war ii

• neutrality acts

• 1935: authorized the president to stop arms shipments, forbade citizens from traveling on belligerent ships

• 1936: forbade loans to belligerents

• 1937: forbade shipment of arms to opposing sides in the spanish civil war

• america first committee

• mobilize american public opinion against the war

• speakers eg. charles lindbergh

• established in response to america's pro-british policies

• pushed isolationist sentiment

• cash and carry act

• congress allows belligerent ships to buy us ships if they

• paid in cash

• provided their own transportation ("carried")

• would only benefit british since they controlled the seas

• roosevelt's attempt at chipping away at neutrality acts

• lend-lease act

• permit british to buy any arms they needed on credit (rather than cash + carry)

• isolationists resisted, but majority opinion supported britain

• atlantic charter

• roosevelt + churchill affirmed general principles for peace after the war

• self-determination

• no territorial expansion

• free trade

• major conferences

• casablanca conference: us/uk, demanded unconditional surrender from axis powers

• tehran conference: us/uk/ussr, plan to liberate france, have soviets invade germany

• us transition from neutrality — pearl harbor (+ other japanese attacks on american islands in the pacific)

• created occasion for violations of civil liberties, as is the case for most wars

• got us out of the great depression → federal spending drastically increased + solved our economic problems

• private factories were commandeered for war production

• trampling of civil liberties: japanese americans, associated with japanese enemies due to racist tendencies

• these are american citizens, upheld by korematsu v us

• anti-fascist/totalitarian sentiment strengthened following reveals of horrors of holocaust, justified us’ involvement in war

• turning point: d-day, largest invasion in history germans surrender may 1945

• pacific theater: decisive victory at midway, island hopping campaign to cut off japan

• atomic bombs dropped to end war

postwar diplomacy

• yalta conference: germany divided into occupation zones — free elections in eastern europe, soviets enter war against japan, formation of united nations

• potsdam conference: us/uk/ussr, demand unconditional surrender from japan, hold war crime trials of nazis

• war-ravaged asia + europe, dominant us role in war + postwar settlements solidified america’s status as a world power