Studied by 8 people
Formative Influences on the Enlightenment
Isaac Newton and John Locke
Emilie Du Châtelet's translation of Newton's Principia Mathematica
Newton's → gravity = power of human reason
Newton's physics and Locke's psychology provided the theoretical foundation for reforming society
The Emergence of a Print Culture
expansion was fueled by rising literacy rates
shift from religious to secular topics
publications like "The Spectator" and coffeehouses fostered discussion
Writers began to earn a living from their work, challenging traditional aristocratic values
challenged traditional intellectual, social, & political authorities → forced them to operate more transparently
The Philosophes
influential writers and critics during the Enlightenment, championing reform and toleration
applied reason, criticism, and common sense
Voltaire
career was marked by run-ins with French authorities due to his irreverent writings
sought refuge in England, praising its intellectual and religious tolerance
published influential works promoting the ideas of Isaac Newton
call to "Crush the Infamous Thing" encapsulated their stance against the perceived intolerance in organized Christianity
Immanuel Kent
wrote an essay → "What is Enlightenment?" in which he defined enlightenment as emerging from self-imposed immaturity through reason
credited Frederick the Great for promoting freedom of thought and religious ideas in his realm
Deism
goal was a religion without extremism and intolerance
nature was rational and that God who created nature must also be rational
Deists, like John Toland, advocated a natural and rational approach to religion
viewed God as a divine watchmaker who created the natural world and set it in motion.
two core beliefs: the existence of God and the idea of an afterlife with rewards and punishments based on earthly virtue
Diderot
co edited the Encylopedia
associated with the philosophes
freedom of expression
Rousseau
Rousseau argued that civilization and the Enlightenment had corrupted human nature
In "The Social Contract", Rousseau outlined an abstract political structure to address the contemporary political and social ills
organized society's constraints are necessary
Toleration
philosophs emphasized the importance of religious toleration (Voltaire especially)
He became involved in the case of Jean Calas, a Huguenot who was wrongfully executed
Voltaire's Treatise on Tolerance → exposed the injustice of the case
German playwright Gotthold Lessing wrote "Nathan the Wise," a plea for religious toleration
advocate for Islam Lady Mary Wortley Montagu wrote "Turkish Embassy Letters," she praised practice of vaccination against smallpox and the treatment of upper-class Turkish women
ppl started speaking highly of muslims and jews
Radical Enlightenment Criticism of Christianity
some philosophes went beyond and criticized the churches and clergy
challenged the truthfulness of priests and the morality of the Bible
Baron d'Holbach and Julien Offray de La Mettrie, embraced positions close to atheism and materialism
Immanuel Kant's work titled "Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone"
The Limits of Toleration
philosophes critiqued traditional religions
stigmatized Jews and Judaism in the eyes of non-Jewish Europeans
Islam was portrayed negatively
The Jewish Enlightenment
This period known as Haskalah, involved engagement with the secular world and the study of Jewish religious texts
Baruch Spinoza who lived in the Netherlands, advocated a secularized version of Judaism, emphasizing reason
Moses Mendelssohn → Jewish Socrates
Spinoza, influenced by the science of his time, championed toleration while condemning traditional Judaism
Mendelssohn believed that Jews could uphold their religious practices while embracing Enlightenment values and religious toleration
John Locke
social contract
natural rights: life, liberty, property
seperation of gov powers
The Encyclopedia: Freedom and Economic Improvement
Diderot and d’Alembert made the first volume
collective plea for freedom of expression, was heavily censored
included ideas of the time on religion, government, and philosophy: often had to be hidden in obscure articles
the power and resources of the earth and peace was more important than GOD
Beccaria and Reform of Criminal Law
Italian aristocrat and philosophe, published On Crimes and Punishments→analysis of making punishments both effective and just
wanted positive law—to conform with the rational laws of nature
thought criminal of justice = speedy trials
The Physiocrats and Economic Freedom
Economic policy → philosophes saw existing legislation/administration prevented the operation of natural social laws
Their leading spokesmen were François Quesnay & Pierre Dupont de Nemours
primary role of government was to protect property
small peasants = large farms
Adam Smith on Economic Growth and Social Progress
believed economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system
abolish england mercantile system
best way to encourage economic growth was to allow individuals to pursue their own selfish economic interests
government should provide schools, armies, navies, and roads
laissez-faire economic thought and policy, which favors a limited role for the government in economic life
human societies can be classified as hunting and gathering, pastoral or herding, agricultural, or commercial
Political Thought of the Philosophes
corruption around the royal court, the bureaucracy, midcentury wars, and power of the church
mostly occurred in France
aristocratic reform to democracy to absolute monarchy???
Montesquieu and Spirit of the Laws
"The Persian Letters" to criticize contemporary institutions and shed light on the cruelty and irrationality of European life
admired british govern power structure
“The Spirit of the Laws" - no laws apply to all governments
favored a monarchical government tempered and limited by intermediary institutions
constitutional limits on monarchs' power and a separate legislature to formulate laws
Women in the Thought and Practice of the Enlightenment
led salons facilitated discussions btwn philosophs
montesquieu woman advocate
rousseau woman opppp
Frederick the Great
prussian emperor
strong implementation of enlightenment ideas
especially artistic aspects of enlightenment
LOVES FRENCH <3
admired Voltaire
created an extremely strong centralized government
brings in the nobility, clergy, growing middle class → part of bureaucracy
all of them are super loyal to him → gives government positions based on merit, need to be educated, middle class + nobility men go to university together creating commonality and less rivalry between social classes
recognizes the strength of religious tolerance → Jews and Catholics in Prussia
Catherine the Great
peter II her husband is CRAY
Catherine becomes EMPRESS cause peter the II gets KILLED.
serfs are the basis of noble power → do not get freed cause she does not want to piss off the nobles
wants warm water port + westernize russia
someone claims her throne, this dude says he finna free the serfs and peasants, there is a big slaughter of nobles, Catherine kills them ALL
many of her reforms become about controlling the serfs, takes land from church and gives to nobles so they have more serfs
Maria Theresa
austrian ruler
doesn’t enact a lot of enlightenment ideas
she streamlines + centralizes large parts of the government
Limits noble power over surfs cause she wanted to use them in her army
son - Joseph II
Joseph II
rules with his mother as co regent
radical
encourages religious tolerance
strips Roman Catholic church power so they are more dependent on him
abolishes serfdom
nobles but serfs also get pissed
he says you have to be paid for your work
serfs scared of dealing with cash
they liked the barter system instead
nobles get to determine the price of the crops, and they make sure that the serfs cannot afford it by making the price higher than their wage
bro Leopold reverse Joseph’s things
rococco
The Rococo style embraced lavish, often lighthearted decoration with an emphasis on pastel colors and the play of light
Neoclassicism embodied a return to figurative and architectural models drawn from the Renaissance and the ancient world
Rococo became associated with the aristocracies of the Old Regime
neoclassicism
challenged Rococo's superficiality and embraced themes from ancient Greece and Rome
focused on moral themes and often depicted scenes of heroism and self-sacrifice from ancient history
Enlightened Absolutism
did not wish to limit the power of monarchs
Rather, they sought to use their power to rationalize economic and political structures and liberate intellectual life
Most philosophes were not opposed to power if it benefited them in some way
Frederick the Great of Prussia
he successfully built a state that garnered loyalty from various social groups, including the military, nobility, clergy, bureaucracy, and university professors.
he embraced religious toleration and encourage open discussions of Enlightenment ideas
Frederick also used the state's power to foster economic growth, encouraging agriculture development and supporting landowners through a land-mortgage credit association
The Partitions of Poland
Frederick the Great proposed a division of Polish territory to satisfy the interests of Russia, Austria, and Prussia while preventing conflict.
Prussia gained territory that united its regions, and Austria took southern Poland and other areas.
The Polish aristocracy, having maintained internal liberties at the expense of a strong central government, ratified the partition.
It showed that major powers in eastern Europe were willing to settle their rivalries at the expense of weaker states.
The End of the Eighteenth Century in Central and Eastern Europe
In Prussia and Austria, the rulers' reforms faced resistance from the nobility
Frederick the Great of Prussia became distant in his old age, allowing the aristocracy to assume more power.
In Austria, Joseph II's attempts to restructure society and administration faced opposition
Russia experienced the Pugachev Rebellion, a peasant uprising, which left Catherine the Great fearful
