Brain and Behaviour FINAL

Q: How can small injuries to the brain affect a person?

A: Small injuries to the brain can result in large changes in personality and emotion.

Q: Why do humans have emotions according to some theories?

A: Some argue that emotions are remnants from evolution and have been superseded by cognition.

Q: Is the idea that emotions are outdated and replaced by reasoning true?

A: No, humans are emotional beings, and emotions are an integral part of reasoning and cognition.

Q: What is an emotion?

A: Emotion is an internal state and involuntary physiological response to an object or situation.

Q: Can you give an example of an emotional response in the body?

A: Seeing a tiger in the distance can trigger a fear response in the body.

Q: What is affect?

A: Affect is the conscious, subjective mental feeling about a stimulus.

Q: How would you measure affect in a person?

A: By asking someone how a stimulus, like seeing a tiger, makes them feel.

Q: What is psychophysiology in the context of emotion?

A: Psychophysiology is the study of the relationship between brain activity and psychological processes in emotion.

Q: How does the autonomic nervous system contribute to emotion?

A: The autonomic nervous system generates immediate bodily responses, like hairs standing up when something is scary.

Q: How do emotions affect neurohormonal activity?

A: Emotions cause changes in neurohormonal and visceral activity, producing slower responses like sustained hormone release if a stimulus continues.

Q: How do emotions show themselves through motor behavior?

A: Emotions are expressed through facial expressions and tone of voice, which provide important cues about a person’s emotional state.

Q: What role does self-reported cognition play in understanding emotion?

A: Subjects can report their conscious emotional experiences, while unconscious cognitive processes still influence behavior without awareness.

Q: What is the limbic lobe and why is it important for emotion?

A: The limbic lobe, including structures like the medial-temporal lobe, amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate cortex, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland, controls most of the brain’s emotional and hormonal responses.

Q: How does the olfactory bulb relate to emotion?

A: The olfactory bulb processes smell inputs, which can trigger emotions and feelings of familiarity.

Q: What is the role of the amygdala?

A: The amygdala is involved in processing emotional responses and is located next to the hippocampus.

Q: What is the function of the hippocampus in emotion?

A: The hippocampus helps organize and store memories, acting as the brain’s “great librarian.”

Q: How does the cingulate cortex contribute to emotion?

A: The cingulate cortex, particularly the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), is involved in value judgments, determination, and the emotional requirements for ethical behavior.

Q: What is the role of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in emotion?

A: The hypothalamus regulates hormonal responses, and the pituitary gland at its base helps control most hormone activity in the limbic system.

Q: What causes Klüver–Bucy syndrome?

A: Klüver–Bucy syndrome is caused by removing the amygdala and the inferior temporal lobe bilaterally.

Q: What are the main symptoms of Klüver–Bucy syndrome?

A: Symptoms include lack of affect, no response to previously threatening stimuli, staring at dangerous objects like tigers, willingness to eat a wide variety of foods, and increased or inappropriate libido.

Q: How is the prefrontal cortex involved in regulating emotion?

A: The prefrontal cortex modulates the amygdala to keep emotional responses in check.

Q: What is visual agnosia and when can it occur?

A: Visual agnosia is the inability to recognize objects visually and can be observed in humans following meningoencephalitis or other diseases.

Q: How did psychosurgery contribute to understanding emotion?

A: Removal of the frontal lobe in chimpanzees made them more relaxed, leading to widespread use of frontal lobotomy in humans to reduce behavioral problems.

Q: Are emotions universal across humans?

A: Yes, emotion is a universal human phenomenon found across cultures at any point of civilization.

Q: How are emotions encoded in humans?

A: Emotions are encoded in DNA, indicating that they are not solely a result of nature versus nurture.

Q: What did early studies of the limbic lobe focus on in emotion research?

A: Early studies focused on the hippocampus in the limbic lobe.

Q: What does modern research focus on regarding emotional circuits?

A: Modern research focuses on the connections between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex.

Q: What is the amygdala and where is it located?

A: The amygdala is a collection of nuclei located in the medial-temporal lobe, which links sensory processing to emotional evaluation and response initiation.

Q: What are the main inputs to the amygdala?

A: Inputs include:

1. Thalamus – provides sensory information.

2. Sensory cortices (V3, A3, S3, PTO) – higher-level sensory processing.

3. Hippocampus – gives contextual information about what is seen and where it is, important for PTSD treatment.

4. Orbital frontal cortex – provides top-down regulation to control when emotional responses are appropriate.

Q: How does the amygdala process emotional information?

A: The amygdala integrates sensory input and contextual information from other brain structures and determines the appropriate emotional response.

Q: What are the main outputs of the amygdala?

A: Outputs include:

1. Hypothalamus – regulates hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline for slower emotional responses.

2. Brainstem – generates quick fight-or-flight responses.

3. Cortex (including insular cortex and prefrontal cortex) – involved in emotional decision-making and attention to emotional stimuli.

4. Hippocampus – provides specific memories or responses to the stimulus.

Q: How does the amygdala respond to sensory input?

A: The amygdala receives input from all sensory modalities but only responds to complex stimuli, such as a large threatening object rather than a simple line.

Q: Are amygdala cells specialized or multimodal?

A: Many amygdala cells are multimodal and respond to input from multiple sensory modalities, especially those processing sensory inputs.

Q: What is the role of the amygdala in identifying stimuli?

A: The amygdala is part of a broader network that helps rapidly and accurately identify stimuli that are affectively significant.

Q: How have neuroimaging techniques advanced the study of emotion?

A: Neuroimaging techniques enable researchers to study emotions in intact brains.

Q: What are the basic emotions most often studied?

A: Basic emotions include anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, and surprise.

Q: Are different emotions processed in separate locations in the brain?

A: There is little support for the idea that each emotion is processed in a different brain location, possibly because our labels reflect categories, not the brain’s organization.

Q: What components are included in an emotional episode?

A: An emotional episode includes appraisal of the situation, preparation for mental and physical actions, physiological reactions, expressive behaviors, and subjective feelings.

Q: What is the primary purpose of the brain according to the theory of constructed emotion?

A: The brain’s primary purpose is to integrate all the body’s resources to meet imminent needs in the short and long term.

Q: What is allostasis?

A: Allostasis is maintaining internal stability despite changing conditions.

Q: How does the brain reduce uncertainty according to this theory?

A: The brain constructs a predictive model of the world to anticipate upcoming needs and reduce uncertainty.

Q: Which brain regions contribute to allostasis?

A: The anterior cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, insula, amygdala, and striatum interact to accomplish allostasis.

Q: What influences affective feelings about objects or situations?

A: Genes, past experiences, and culture influence affective feelings about an object or situation.

Q: What does Damasio’s somatic marker hypothesis propose?

A: The hypothesis proposes that the body and brain change in response to encountering a biologically important stimulus, creating physiological changes called somatic markers.

Q: How does a reduced bodily reaction affect emotion?

A: Reduced bodily reactions to a stimulus should reduce the intensity of the corresponding emotion.

Q: How is Damasio’s theory broader than William James’s original theory?

A: Damasio’s theory covers a wider range of emotions and bodily changes, including motor behaviors, facial expressions, autonomic arousal, and endocrine status.

Q: Why is the social environment important for humans?

A: The social environment is important for the survival of the individual and society.

Q: What aspects of social development are important for emotion?

A: Social development, social communication, and culture are important for humans to function in society.

Q: Which brain region is likely involved in complex social emotions like jealousy, pride, and embarrassment?

A: The prefrontal cortex is likely involved in processing complex social emotions.

Q: How does LeDoux use fear to study emotions?

A: Fear is used as an exemplar to study the brain basis of emotions.

Q: What distinction does LeDoux make regarding fear?

A: He differentiates between nonconscious mechanisms that detect and respond to fear and conscious experiences of fear.

Q: How are conscious experiences of perception and emotion mediated?

A: Conscious experiences of perception and emotion are mediated by a single cortical circuit.

Q: How is an emotional stimulus processed in the nervous system?

A: Processing begins with triggering of the sensory system when neurons reach an action potential.

Q: What is “voodoo death” as described by Walter Cannon?

A: Voodoo death occurs when a person believes a curse has been placed on them, generating fear so overwhelming that it can lead to death.

Q: How can beliefs trigger physiological responses?

A: Beliefs can activate emotional systems powerfully enough to cause severe physiological effects, such as in broken heart syndrome.

Q: What happens in broken heart syndrome?

A: Severe emotional stress, such as receiving terrible news, can deform the heart so that it resembles a vase and cause serious physiological damage.

Q: What is the first step in processing an emotional stimulus?

A: The first step is conscious perception, which is the awareness of a situation, fact, or belief.

Q: How does the limbic system contribute to emotional processing?

A: The limbic system receives projections from sensory cortices and helps process what consciousness perceives.

Q: What role does the hypothalamus play in emotional responses?

A: The hypothalamus signals to the periaqueductal gray (PAG) to coordinate further responses.

Q: What is the function of the PAG?

A: The PAG carries out specific responses as part of the emotional processing pathway.

Q: What is the RVLM and its role in emotion?

A: The rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) is a brainstem structure that directly controls the sympathetic nervous system, affecting heart rate and blood pressure.

Q: What neurotransmitter increases sympathetic activity when injected into the RVLM?

A: Glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter, immediately increases heart rate and blood pressure when injected into the RVLM in rats.

Q: How does the sympathetic nervous system respond to stress?

A: It generates fight-or-flight responses, producing immediate physiological changes to prepare the body for action.

Q: How are neural networks in the amygdala formed?

A: Neural networks in the amygdala are based on both genes and experience.

Q: Do animals retain fear responses they have never encountered before?

A: Yes, animals bred in captivity can retain fear responses to environmental stimuli that evolution has prepared them to recognize.

Q: How does the amygdala help animals learn about threats from others?

A: Amygdala neurons perceive negative emotions in other members of the social group, allowing learning about potential threats.

Q: Can the amygdala learn from experiences that occur during an individual’s life?

A: Yes, amygdala networks can learn about new experiences that evolution could not have prepared the species for.

Q: How does the amygdala alert the cortex to beneficial or dangerous stimuli?

A: The amygdala identifies important stimuli based on experience and alerts the cortex via brainstem-activating systems.

Q: Why is context important for the amygdala?

A: Context helps the amygdala correctly interpret whether a stimulus is beneficial or dangerous.

Q: What does language include besides vocal communication?

A: Language includes gestures, touches, and visual images in addition to vocal communication.

Q: Is language unique to humans?

A: Yes, language is an entirely human phenomenon, although other species also communicate in different ways.

Q: What forms can language take?

A: Language can be spoken, read, written, or expressed through visual images and gestures, such as handshakes.

Q: What are phonemes?

A: Phonemes are the smallest units of sound that make up words.

Q: What are morphemes?

A: Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning, such as “a,” “chair,” or “table.”

Q: What is a lexicon?

A: A lexicon is the stored representation of words in the brain.

Q: What is syntax?

A: Syntax is the set of grammar rules for combining words into sentences.

Q: What is semantics?

A: Semantics refers to the meanings that correspond to lexical items.

Q: What is prosody and which hemisphere processes it?

A: Prosody is the intonation of speech, and it is processed in the right hemisphere.

Q: What is discourse in language?

A: Discourse is the linking of sentences into a coherent narrative.

Q: What are the vocal cords and where are they located?

A: The vocal cords, or vocal folds, are two membranes at the top of the trachea.

Q: What is the original purpose of the vocal cords?

A: The vocal cords originally protect the lungs, not generate speech.

Q: How do vocal cords produce sound?

A: When speaking or singing, the vocal cords slam shut, allowing air to vibrate them and create sound.

Q: What other structures contribute to producing speech sounds?

A: The tongue and lips shape the sounds into distinct speech.

Q: What is categorization in language development?

A: Categorization is the ability to group objects based on similarities, such as recognizing that cats and dogs are both pets.

Q: How do we label categories?

A: Once similarities are identified, we assign labels like “cat,” “dog,” or “bird.”

Q: What is sequencing behavior and why is it important?

A: Sequencing behavior is performing actions in a specific order, like walking across a room and reaching for a cup, and it is essential for language development.

Q: Why is mimicry important in language development?

A: Babies and toddlers imitate the sounds of their linguistic environment, which helps them acquire language skills.

Q: What do discontinuity theories suggest about the origin of language?

A: Discontinuity theories suggest that language emerged suddenly in the past 200,000 years.

Q: Why is human language considered different from other animal communication?

A: The complexity of human sounds, syntax, and semantics differs significantly from animal communication, indicating a sudden emergence.

Q: When might a common human language have existed?

A: Analysis of word changes suggests there may have been a common human language around 100,000 years ago.

Q: How do written and spoken language relate to motor control?

A: Both require fine motor control, suggesting that the development of precise mouth movements for speech may have evolved alongside dietary adaptations in humans.

Q: What do continuity theories suggest about the evolution of language?

A: Continuity theories suggest that language evolved slowly from communication forms present in other animal species.

Q: How do chimpanzees communicate?

A: Chimpanzees make more than 30 vocalizations to communicate with other individuals.

Q: How do animals use gestures in communication?

A: Many animals use gestures, and these movements can be interpreted as a rudimentary subject–object–verb syntax.

Q: How important are gestures in human language?

A: Gestures accompany more than 90% of spoken language, highlighting the role of the motor system in language.

Q: How is sign language connected to spoken language in the brain?

A: Lesions that impair spoken language also affect sign language, and fMRI studies show overlapping brain areas for both forms of communication.

Q: How is language organized in the brain?

A: There appear to be two systems: one for generating language (speech production) and one for giving meaning (comprehension).

Q: How were these systems identified?

A: Neurologists studying patients with brain injuries helped identify these distinct systems.

Q: What is Broca’s area responsible for?

A: Broca’s area, located in the frontal lobe, directs language production and is usually lateralized to the left hemisphere.

Q: What is Wernicke’s area responsible for?

A: Wernicke’s area, located in the posterior temporal lobe, is responsible for language comprehension.