Psychology AQA GCSE PAPER 1

Encoding

Changing information so it can be stores

Storage

Holding info in the memory system

Retrieval

Recovering info from storage

4 memory stores

Multi store, sensory store, short term store, long term store

Multi store

Idea that memory allows info to pass through a series of memory stores

Sensory store

Holds info received from senses for short period of time

Short term store

7 chunks limited amount of time

Long term store

Vast amount of info for long period of time

Peterson and Peterson

Aim- see rehearsal necessary to hold info short term memory store

Method- participants given set of 3 letters count backwards prevent rehearsal then asked to recall

Results- forgotten after 18 seconds

Conclusion- concluded we cannot hold info in short unless rehearsed

Evaluation- lacks ecological validity we do not normally do this

Murdock

Aim- provide evidence to support multi store explanation of memory

Method- learn list words recall in any order

Results- words at end recalled (recency effect) and words at start recalled (primary effect) middle forgot

Conclusion- concluded provides evidence for short term and long term memory stores

Evaluation- lacks ecological validity not a normal task

Reconstructive memory

Altering our recollection of things so that they make more sense to us

Bartlett

Aim- when given unfamiliar to tell would we alter info

Method- read 'the war of the ghosts' later asked to recall repeated several times in week

Results- discovered difficulty remembering changed parts

Conclusion- memory is influenced by our beliefs

Evaluation- not normal task lacks ecological validity

Wynn and Logie

Aim- see if recall of stories change familiar event

Method- uni students recalled first week several times in year

Results- stayed the same

Conclusion- concluded memory for familiar events will not change

Evaluation- we do not know how accurate it was to begin with

Structural processing

Thinking about the appearance of a word to learn it

Phonetic processing

Thinking about the sound of a word to learn it

Semantic processing

Thinking about the meaning of a word to learn it

Levels of processing

The depth of which info is thought about when trying to learn it

Craik and Lockhart

Aim- type question asked about word effected how many words could be recalled

Method- list of words asks yes/no questions some required structural/phonetic/ semantic processing then asked to identify words and answered questions

Results- 70% semantic, 35% phonetic, 15% structural

Conclusion- deep info processed more like to be remembered

Evaluation- lacks ecological validity not a normal task

Interference

Things that we have learnt that make it difficult to recall other information that we have learnt

Retroactive interference

Recently learnt info hinders ability to recall previous info

Proactive interference

Info already learnt hinders ability to learn new information

Underwood and Postman

Aim- see if learning interferes with previous

Method- 2 groups A list word pairs, 2 lots B only 1 list

Results- B recall of first was more accurate

Conclusion- new learning will cause people to recall info less accurately

Godden and Baddeley

Aim- learn and tester in same environment would recall info better than those tested in different environments

Method- deep sea divers 4 groups given list of words (underwater learn, recall on land so on)

Results- groups which learnt and recalled in same environment 40% more words

Conclusion- recall better if in same place of learning

Retrograde amnesia

Suffering brain damage and being unable to learn new info

Miller

Patient suffering epilepsy 2 thirds hippocampus removes unable to learn. Hippocampus critical for new memory

Anterograde amnesia

Unable to learn new info after brain damage

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of memories from our past before brain damage

Russell and Nathan

Retrograde amnesia 22 yr old fell off motorbike banged head x-ray showed no fracture could not recall 2 years prior incident

Leading questions

Questions that contain their answers

Cognitive interview

Method of questioning recreates event

Loftus and Palmer

Aim- see if leading qs affect accuracy of recall

Method- showed car accident asked 'how fast was it going when it hit/smashed the car?'

Results- smash higher speed estimate

Conclusion- leading qs affect accuracy of recall

Bruce and Young

Aim- familiarity affects accuracy of recalling faces

Method- lecturers on cctv asked to identify faces from cctv photos

Result- lecturers students correct identification than police

Conclusion- previous familiarity helps identifying faces

Geiselman

Aim- reinstating context of event using cognitive interview will affect accuracy of witnesses accounts

Method- police training film crime 2 days later asked about for half scene was recreated

Result- context recalled more accurate

Conc- context increase accuracy

Stereotype

Over simplified generalised set of ideas we have about others

Cohen

Aim- see if stereotypes affect memory

Meth- video man and woman eating in restaurant half told woman was waitress/librarian later all asked to describe behaviour and personality

Results- two groups matched stereotype

Conc- stereotypes affect accuracy of accounts of people

Communication

Passing info from one person to another

Verbal communication

Conveying messages using words or vocal sounds

Paralinguistics

Vocal features that accompany speech

Tone of voice

The way words are spoken to convey emotion

Emphasis

Special importance, value, or prominence given to words.

Intonation

Inflection in the voice when speaking

Non verbal communication

Conveying messages that do not require the use of words or vocal sounds

Argyle Alkema and Gilmour

Aim- tone of voice effect on interpreting verbal messages

Method- listened to friendly/ hostile message

Result- tone had 5x effect of verbal message

Conc- tone of voice is important how people interpret verbal messages

Davitz and Davitz

Aim- effect of paralinguistics on the assessment of emotion

Method- listen to tape of voice with tone of voice, emphasis, intonation

Results- accuracy recognising affection, amusement, disgust, fear

Conc- paralinguistics has great importance when judging emotion

Evaluation- artificial environment

Eye contact

When two people in convo look at each other's eyes at the same time

Kendon

Aim- see how eye movements effect flow of convo

Method- pairs acquainted convos secretly watched one way mirror

Results- went to speak looked away, prolonged look about to finish, look indicated other person to speak, no look pause

Conc- eye movements signal turn in talking

Evaluation- ethical issues deception

Argyle

Aim- interrupting eye contact effects convo

Method- pair in convo half wore dark glasses so other couldn't receive eye contact

Results- glasses more pauses

Conclusion- eye contact ensures smooth flow convo

Hess

Aim- pupil dilation effects emotion

Method- 2 photos same girl asked which more attractive girls pupils dilated in one

Result- majority chose dilated but couldn't say why

Conclusion- dilation has an unconscious but powerful effect on emotion

Evaluation- lacks ecological validity was an artificial observation

Sackeim

Aim- relationship between facial expressions and hemispheres of the brain

Method- faces picture cut down middle new picture with mirror image which liked best

Result- preferred left half "warmer"

Conclusion- left side expresses more emotion

Body language

term to describe aspects of non verbal communication

Postural echo

Mirroring another persons position

McGinley

Aim- effect of postural echo in convo

Method- confederate social setting convo half echoed posture after asked opinion

Result- postural echo got on well/ not used awkward

Conc- postural echo gives unconscious message of friendliness

Evaluation- ethical issue deception

McGinley Lefvre

Aim- effect open and closed posture in convo

Method- confederate had convo half open/ closed posture asked opinion

Result- open posture attractive friendly, closed posture unfriendly

Conc- posture someone adopts affects how they are liked

Evaluation- ethical issue deception

Gesture

Info conveyed deliberately or unconsciously with movement

Touch

Info is conveyed by physical contact

Lynn and Mynier

Aim- effect of gestures used by waiters changed tips

Method- taking orders seated customers had to stand/crouch

Result- crouched larger tip

Conc- gesture of squat positive effect on tip

Fisher Rytting and Heslin

Aim- see effect of touch on attitudes

Method- female students library handed book by librarian confederate half touched

Result- touched positive weren't aware

Conc- touch can have unconscious positive effects on attitudes

Personal space

Distance we keep between ourselves and others

Argyle and Dean

Aim- sex differences effect personal space

Method- convo with confederate same/opposite sex sat at different distances looked into eyes

Res- participants break eye contact of opposite sex at greater distance point ps was invaded

Conc- prefer greater ps with opposite sex in normal convo

Willis

Aim- age effects ps

Meth- 800 social situations observed

Res- close own age further from old

Conc- age difference affects how close we stand

Evaluation- ethical issue no consent

Williams

Aim- personality effects ps

Method- college personality test extrovert/introvert sent to office to get grades noted how close they sat

Results- intro further away

Conc- extrovert or introvert will affect ps

Cultural norms

Range of behaviours that members of group expected to show

Summer

Aim- cultural differences ps

Method- white english and arab observed in convo

Result- English 1.5m arab much less

Conclusion- ps in normal convo varies with culture

Zahn

Aim- status effect ps

Method- observed equal status convo and unequal

Result- lower did not approach higher with same degree of closeness

conclusion- ps varies with diff status

Evaluation- face expression could affect ps

Personality

Thoughts feelings behaviour that make an individual unique

Temperament

Genetic component of personality

Thomas Chess Birch

Aim- discover ways responding stay stable in life

Method- 133 kids observed behaviour parents interviewed

Res- easy/difficult/ slow to warm up happy flexible demanding inflexible did not respond well but once adapted happy

Conc- ways of responding stayed with children as developing concluded temperament was innate

Evaluation- longitudinal middle class

Buss and Ploman

Aim- temperament innate tested

Method- 228 pairs monozygotic twins and 172 pairs of dizygotic twins 5 years looked at emotionality activity and sociality compared twins

Res- correlation between monozygotic

Conc- temperament has a genetic basis

Evaluation- could be environment not gene

Kagan and Snidman

Aim- temperament is due to biological differences

Method- reactions 4 month old to new situations first min out in seat caregiver near by next 3 mins caregiver out of sight baby shown toys

Res- 20% distressed cry high reactive 40% low reactive little movement

Conc- temperaments due to inherited differences way brain respond

Evaluation- large sample experimental setting

Eysenck

Aim- personality test 700 service men

Meth- questionnaire analysed factor analysis

Res- 2 dimensions extroversion-introversion and neuroticism- stability

conc- everyone was in dimension or in middle

evaluation- lied on questionnaire, all men

APD

condition where individual does not use socially acceptable behaviour or consider rights of others eg stealing, can't pay money back, conning

Causes of APD

Amygdala involved in emotion, prefrontal cortex involved in social and moral behaviour and aggression, situational causes eg low school achievement, socioeconomic factors like financial issues

Raine

Aim- abnormalities in prefrontal cortex causes APD

Method- MRI scan 21 men w APD 34 healthy all volunteers

Res- APD 11% reduction in grey matter

Farrington

Aim- investigate development antisocial behaviour from childhood-50

Method- longitudinal study 411 males london parents teachers interviewed search family records for crime

Result- 41% males convicted 1 offence between 10-50 criminal behaviour in family and poverty

Conc- situational factors cause APD

Evaluation- could have lied on surveys

Elander

Aim- investigate childhood risk factors that predict APD

Method- 225 twins childhood disorders interviewed 10-25 years later

Res- hyperactivity low iq reading disorder strong predictors of APD

Conc- disruptive behaviour in childhood can be used to predict APD

Evaluation- twins genetics could have affected behaviour

William and Best

Aim- sex stereotyping across 30 countries

Method- 300 characteristics associated w male or female

Res- same associated females understanding warm males hard headed

Rubin

Aim- parents stereotype babies

Meth- describe baby 24 hours born

Res- boys alert strong girls soft delicate

Conc- parents stereotype from early age and painting room

Prejudice

A rigid set of attitudes or beliefs we have for groups of people usually negative

Discrimination

Way an individual behaves towards person or group because of prejudice view

Barrett and Short

Aim- development of prejudice in kids

Meth- 216 english 5-10yr opinions on people from different countries

Res- positive towards french least liked german no factual info

Conc- by 10 years children have prejudiced views

Authoritarian personality

A personality that is prone to being prejudice

F scale

Questionnaire used by Adorno to measure personality characteristics

Adorno

Aim- relationship between personality and prejudice beliefs

Meth- 100s interviewed tested with F-scale

Res- found relationship

Conc- authoritarian personality with these characteristics are likely to be prejudice

Evaluation- doesn't explain why they're only prejudice to some, parenting

Sherif

Aim- prejudice develops when groups comp for scarce resources

Meth- summer camp 22 boys 2 teams staff made comp

Result- unpleasant name calling attack

Conc- competitions cause prejudice

Evaluation- all middle class and boys artificial situation

Levine

Aim- believed relationship with stranger more likely to help them

Method- stuntman fell infront of man u fans half wearing man u shirt half wearing liverpool

Result- man u helped liverpool left

Conc- feel we have something in common mode likely to help in group members

In group

People with whom we share a common identity

Out group

People you believe you have nothing in common with

Tajfel

Aim- easily discriminate out groups

Method- 14/15yr boys in 2 groups game for points

Res- boys awarded points by choosing pairings that created the biggest difference between the group

Conc- people discriminate out group members

Evaluation- all boys artificial group

Jigsaw method

Technique used by Aronson reduce prejudice in a group of mixed race students

Elliot

Aim- teach class what it felt like to be discriminated

Method- told class blue eyes best smarter brown cannot use drinking fountain

Res- blue delighted brown angry reversed next day did same

Conc- beloved they would be more tolerant now discriminated

Eval- ethical issues trauma

Aronson

Eliminating prejudice black and white jigsaw method experts on one topic enhanced self esteem

Eval- not generalised out of class

Harwood

Aim- investigate kids views on elderly

Meth- asked about grand parents and relationship

Res- regular contact positive opinions

Conc- contact with grandparents good predictor on attitude towards elderly

Eval- interviews not reliable

Random sampling

every member of target population equal chance being selected

+ no researcher bias, representative

- time consuming

Opportunity sampling

members of target population willing to take part

+ quick easy

- researcher bias

Systematic sampling

every nth person from target population selected for sample

+ simple no researcher bias

-not representative

Stratified sampling

split into subgroups randomly selected

+ representative

- time consuming

BPS (British psychological society)

Respect get consent and keep data confidential

Competence- give advice if qualified

Responsibility- protect from harm

Integrity- behave with honesty

Questionnaire

set of qs about a topic

+ quick

- could lie

Interview

+ lots of data feelings can't be seen by only watching

- may not be accurate could lie

Observational study

+ real behaviour

- mistakes, can't explain behaviour