AICP - Research and Assessment Methods (11%)

Qualitative research

• An approach for understanding the meaning individuals and groups ascribe to a human or social problem

• Emerging questions

• Flexible written report

• Analysis building from particular data to general themes (inductive)

Quantitative research

• An approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationships among variables (deductive)

• Numbered data which can be analyzed using statistical procedures

• Structured written report

Mixed methods research

• Collection of both qualitative and quantitative data

• Integrating the two forms of data

• May involve both philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks

• Assumes a more complete understanding of a research problem than using one of the approaches alone

Qualitative Research methods

• Case Study Method

• Comparative Analysis

• Discourse Analysis

• e-Research

• Ethnography

• Field Research

• Grounded Theory

• Narrative Analysis

Comparative Analysis

Analysis where data from different settings or groups at the same point in time or from the same settings or groups over a period of time are analyzed to identify similarities and differences.

Discourse Analysis

A study of the way versions or the world, society, events, and psyche are produced in the use of language and discourse. It is often concerned with the construction of subjects within various forms of knowledge/power. Semiotics, deconstruction, and narrative analysis are forms of discourse analysis.

e-Research

is the harnessing of any digital technology to undertake and promote social research. This includes treating the digital sphere as a site of research by examining social interaction in the e-infrastructure.

Ethnography

A multi-method qualitative (participant observation, interviews, discourse analyses of natural language and personal documents) approach that studies people in their "...naturally occuring settings or 'fields' by means of methods which capture their social meanings and ordinary activities, involving the researcher participating directly in the setting..

Field Research

Field research is when a researcher goes to observe an everyday event in the environment where it occurs

Grounded Theory

An inductive form of qualitative research where data collection and analysis are conducted together. Theories remain grounded in the observations rather than generated in the abstract. Grounded theory is an approach that develops the theory from the data collected, rather than applying a theory to the data.

Narrative Analysis

a form of discourse analysis that seeks to study the textual devices at work in the constructions of process or sequence within a text

Steps in the Statistical Processes

1. Collect Data

2. Describe and Summarize Data

   1. Interpreting Data

What Types of Data Exist?

• quantitative variables

• qualitative variables

• discrete variable

• binary variable

• continuous variables

discrete variable

has distinct minimum “chunks”

binary variable

called a dichotomous variable, A special kind of discrete variable only offers two choices

How Can You Measure Data?

• Nominal data

• Ordinal data

• Interval data

• Ratio data

Nominal data

classified into mutually exclusive groups or categories and lack intrinsic order. A zoning classification, a social security number, and a person’s sex are examples

Ordinal data

ordered categories implying a ranking of the observations; Only the rank counts. It would be incorrect to infer, for example, that 4 is twice 2, despite the temptation

Interval data

n ordered relationship where the difference between the scales has a meaningful interpretation

Ratio data

the gold standard of measurement, where both absolute and relative differences have a meaning

population

entire community

sample

small portion of overall community

descriptive statistics

a sample to infer what the numbers might be for the entire population

inferential statistics

statistics that describe the entire population based on inference

what is usually preferred median or mean?

median is preferred because a mean can be skewed in one direction by just a few very high or low numbers

95% of the observations that follow a normal distribution are within ___ standard deviations from the mean

two

standard deviation

a number calculated based on the size of your samples and the size of the overall population

Chi Square test

a measure of fit

ANOVA or analysis of variance

is a more complex form of testing the equality of means between groups.

t-test

is typically used to compare the means of two populations based on their sample averages

Linear Method

uses the change in population (increase or decline) over a period of time and extrapolates that change into the future

Exponential and Modified Exponential Method

uses the rate of growth (or decline), i.e., the percentage change in population over a period of time to estimate the current or future population

Symptomatic Method

uses any available data indirectly related to population size, such as housing starts, or new drivers licenses

Step-Down Ratio Method

a relatively simple way to estimate or project population

cohort survival method

uses the current population plus natural increase (more births, fewer deaths) and net migration (more in-migration, less out-migration) to calculate a future population

Economic base analysis

looks at basic and non-basic economic activities. Basic activities are those that can be exported, while non-basic activities are those that are locally oriented

Shift-share analysis

analyzes a local economy in comparison with a larger economy. This analysis looks at the differential shift, proportional shift, and economic growth.

Input-output analysis

a quantitative method that links suppliers and purchasers to determine the economic output of a region

North American Industry Classification System (NAICS)

the standard used by Federal statistical agencies in classifying business establishments for the purpose of collecting, analyzing, and publishing statistical data about the U.S. economy

TIGER is the acronym for

Topographically Integrated Geographical Encoding and Referencing map

sampling frame

The population of interest

cross-sectional

gathers information about a population at a single point in time

longitudinal surveys

gathers information over a period of time

probability sampling

a direct mathematical relation between the sample and the population, so that precise conclusions can be drawn

stratified sampling

the population is divided into separate groups or classes, from which a sample is drawn such that the classes in the population are represented by the classes in the samples

cluster sample

a special form of stratified sampling, where a specific target group out of the general population is sampled from, such as the elderly, or residents of a specific neighborhood

non-probability sampling

there is no precise connection between the sample and the population, so that the results have to be interpreted with caution since they are not necessarily representative of the population

convenience sample

individuals that are readily available

snowball sample

where one interviewed person suggests other potential interviewees

volunteer sample

consists of self-selected respondents

probability sampling types

systematic, stratified, or cluster

non-probability sampling types

convenience, snowball, volunteer 

volunteered geographic information (VGI)

when participants enter information on a web map (e.g., volunteered street maps)

For big data, issues of relevance and validity depend on the three “Vs

volume, velocity, and variety

The three Vs are sometimes extended with two more Vs:

value and veracity

Implicit bias

the attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner

significant bias

a systematic error or deviation from the truth that is substantial enough to affect the validity of results, conclusions, or decisions

TIGER maps were originally created to look at

U.S. Census data.

All of these are methods of population projection

• linear

• Cohort survival

• Step down

A confidence interval will generally:

will vary based on the confidence you want to have that the actual value is within that margin. Often a 95% confidence interval1 is used

Cross-sectional surveys are a form of data collection that:

Gathers information about a population at a single point in time

In economic base analysis:

assumes some jobs drive the local economy and create other, non-base jobs. For each base job, there are assumed to be a certain number of non-base jobs, using an economic base multiplier