Chinese Question And Answer Flashcards

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What are the varied geographic features of China?

China has varied geography, including the highlands of the Tibetan Plateau, deserts in the north, rainforest in the south, and the sea on the east. The northern border is porous, meaning nomadic tribes can migrate or invade relatively easily. There are two major rivers: the Yellow and the Yangzi.

What was the Xia Dynasty?

The Xia Dynasty (2205 – 1766 BC) was a Bronze Age dynasty considered the first Chinese dynasty. Although for a long time it was thought to be legendary, evidence has surfaced that it really existed.

What confirms the existence of the Xia Dynasty?

A site near Erlitou in Henan Province dated to 2200 to 1700 B.C. is believed to have been a Xia capital. Archaeologists there have found tombs filled with pottery, ornamental jade, clay irrigation pipes, and the world's oldest ritual bronze vessels.

Why is the Shang Dynasty considered the historical beginning of China?

The Shang Dynasty (1766 – 1122 BC) is often considered the historical beginning of China as we do have reliable archaeological and historical sources to confirm their existence.

Describe the political and religious structure of the Shang Dynasty.

The Shang dynasty was a hereditary monarchy headed by a king (known as wang in the late period). The government was a form of theocracy in which the king’s chief role was religious, acting as a mediator between the physical world and the divine. Succession passed through the male line.

What was a significant religious practice in the Shang Dynasty, and who was the high god?

The religion practiced by the Shang ruling class is distinctly monotheistic in character, worshipping the high god Di, also known as Shang-Di (lit. “lord above”), recognized as the one and only divine Lord (Di). Shang religious practices emphasize worship of ancestors.

What are oracle bones and their significance?

Oracle bone script is the earliest known Chinese writing system, dating circa 1200 BC. These writings were used specifically during state divination ceremonies where the Shang ruler, acting as king and high priest, carved scripts concerning matters of state onto tortoise carapaces and cow bones, then used a hot rod to create cracks that represented Shang-Di’s divine answers. Only the Shang king could interpret these.

What types of human sacrifice were practiced during the Shang Dynasty?

There were two exceptional circumstances for human sacrifice: xunzang 殉葬 (lit. “burial sacrifice”), where personal slaves and servants were buried alive with their master; and renji 人祭 (lit. “human offering sacrifice”), practiced only during the Shang dynasty period and on a massive scale (primarily prisoners of war and field slaves, usually via decapitation) as prayers to Shang-Di to deliver the Shang people from famine.

What was the largest recorded renji human sacrifice?

The largest recorded human sacrifice of this kind was done by Shang king Wuding, where over 9,000 slaves were slaughtered as offerings to Shang-Di.

When were the earliest Chinese characters for yin and yang found, and what did they refer to?

The earliest Chinese characters for yin and yang are found in inscriptions on “oracle bones” (at least as early as the 14th century B.C.E.). In these, they simply describe natural phenomena such as weather conditions, especially the movement of the sun: sunlight (yang) and lack of sunlight (yin).

What is the philosophical concept of Yinyang?

The concept that life has two polar opposites that balance the universe, the balance between light and dark, good and evil, male and female, etc.

What were the four social classes of the Shang Dynasty?

Shang Dynasty society was classified into four social classes:

1. The king and aristocracy (responsible for governing smaller areas).
2. The military (infantry and chariot warriors).
3. Artisans and craftsmen (mainly worked with bronze).
4. Peasants (mostly farmers, believed to be like slaves or serfs).

Who was Fu Hao, and what was her significance?

Fu Hao was one of the consorts of Wu Ding, the Shang king under whom Shang power reached its zenith. Her tomb, discovered in 1976, is one of the best preserved tombs from that era, containing her name inscribed on ritual bronzes. Oracle bone inscriptions reveal she led numerous military campaigns, showing her status as a military leader, and was buried with over a hundred weapons and over six thousand cowrie shells (currency).

How long did the Zhou Dynasty rule, and what distinguished its rulers?

The Zhou Dynasty (1046 to 256 BC) is the longest ruling Chinese dynasty, ruling for 867 years with only 34 rulers. The Zhou king was referred to as the “Son of Heaven” and had both religious and political functions.

How did feudalism affect the Zhou Dynasty's power?

The Zhou emperors granted much of their land to royal princes (feudalism). Over time, these princes became independent, weakening the emperor's power as many resources rested outside his direct control. This led to a period of inner conflict and warring states.

What is Tian, and how did the Zhou Dynasty use it to justify their rule?

Tian refers to the idea or concept of heaven. Chinese emperors ruled under the mandate of tian, the idea that their rule is blessed from heaven (started under Zhou Dynasty). The Zhou claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule, implying that an unjust ruler risked heaven withdrawing the mandate, with natural disasters and uprisings as proof.

What characterized the Western Zhou period?

The Western Zhou (1122 – 771 BC) was ruled by the extensive use of feudalism, breaking the kingdom into 55 vassal states. It ended in 771 BC when an alliance of rebellious states and outside invaders destroyed the emperor's power.

What defined the Eastern Zhou period, and what significant historical era did it include?

During the Eastern Zhou (771 to 256 BC), the emperor was a figurehead with primarily religious duties, while real power rested with the nobility. The last 250 years all unity vanished, and 7 states emerge, a time also referred to as the Period of Warring States.

What was the Period of Warring States (c. 471 to 221 BC)?

This period describes the three centuries when various rival Chinese states battled viciously for territorial advantage and dominance. Despite incessant warfare, it saw significant developments in society, commerce, agriculture, philosophy, and the arts, setting foundations for the subsequent flourishing of Imperial China.

Which major philosophies emerged during the Period of Warring States?

Many of China’s great thinkers lived during this period, and new ideas of all kinds emerged, including the schools of Confucianism (emphasizing social and family structure), Daoism (following the patterns of nature), and Legalism (promoting systematic rewards and punishments). These addressed how to create a stable and harmonious society.

Which state was victorious at the end of the Period of Warring States?

Ultimately, the Qin state was victorious and established the first unified Chinese state.

What is the Qin Dynasty (221 – 207 BC) known for?

The Qin Dynasty (pronounced “chin”) united much of what we know as China today. Protected on one side by mountains, the Qin had a geographic advantage over potential rivals.

Who was Qin Shi Huangdi, and what were his key achievements?

Ying Zheng is the first true emperor of China, known as Qin Shi Huangdi. He unified China, expanded its traditional boundaries, standardized coinage, language (into clear and readable characters, making calligraphy an art form), and began construction of the Great Wall of China (to protect his territory from invaders). His legacy is that of a ruthless but strong leader.

What was The Terracotta Army?

The Terracotta Army refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan. The site was discovered in 1974 CE.

Who was Liu Bang (Han Gaozu), and what was his legacy?

Liu Bang (also known by his ruling name of Han Gaozu) began life as a commoner, became a powerful general, and in 202 BC, reunited China after defeating other Qin Dynasty kingdoms, becoming the first emperor of the Han Dynasty. His legacy includes relative leniency to those he rules, inspiring less opposition, and cutting expenditures on public works.

How did Empress Lu (r. 188 to 180 BC) maintain power in the Han Dynasty?

Empress Lü ruled from 188 – 180 B.C.E. as the backbone behind the ruling of the Han Dynasty through the use of puppet emperors. She maintained power by removing members from her late husband’s family from office and replacing them with her own family members, and she murdered all the princes who were a potential threat to her rule. Although ruthless, she offered the empire much needed stability.

What were the key achievements and policies of Han Wudi?

Under Han Wudi the Han will reach the height of their power. He is known for the expansion of China to include all of modern China, N. Vietnam, and N. Korea. He forced landowners to divide their lands upon their death among all of their son’s, which made family wealth more difficult to preserve and had a disastrous effect on peasants. Han Wudi took a bleak view of commercial trade wanting government monopolies, and he sells positions in the government and military, which is opposite of meritocracy.

What was the Silk Road, and why was it important for China under the Han Dynasty?

Under the Han Dynasty, China takes control of the Silk Road. The Silk Road (so named from the valuable silk exports coming out of China) is a valuable trade route through Central Asia, Northern China, and the Mediterranean. Control of the road gives China additional wealth and political power.

What led to the end of the Western Han Dynasty under Wang Mang?

Wang Mang proclaimed himself as an emperor in 9 AD. He implemented contradictory policies, attempting to address the discontent of the aristocracy while also trying to help peasants, ultimately satisfying neither. Famine and natural disasters that followed were interpreted as an indication of losing the Mandate of Heaven, leading to his downfall hastened by the Red Eyebrow rebellion.

What caused the decline of the Eastern (Later) Han Dynasty?

The Eastern/Later Han Dynasty had a long succession of minor and ineffective rulers. Much of the power of the government rested in the hands of the court (or advisors), many of whom were eunuchs (castrated men) who were believed to be less corrupt because they could not father children.

What was the Yellow Turban Rebellion?

The Rebellion of the Yellow Turbans was a failed rebellion against the leadership of the Eastern/Later Han Dynasty, caused by exploitation (due to flooding and labor surplus) and disease outbreaks. It was ruthlessly crushed by Cao Cao, but it resulted in more political power in the hands of the generals leading to their subsequent overthrow of the dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period.

What are some lasting legacies of the Han Dynasty?

The Han Dynasty leaves several lasting legacies including the invention of paper in 100 AD by Cai Lun, the beginning of the Chinese civil service examination system (introduced in 165 BC by Emperor Wen of Han), and perhaps most significantly, that modern China still identifies itself with its Han past, with most Chinese people today considering themselves Han Chinese.

What is the core principle of Daoism?

Dao or Tao means “the way.” In Daoism (sometimes referred to as Taoism), “the way” is nature, a divinely established order for things. It emphasizes that things that are not natural are not worthwhile, and human society aspects like kings and armies are not to be honored. The way to become one with the Dao was through wuwei which means “inaction.” The most important Daoist philosopher is Lao Zi, who wrote the influential text the Dao Da Jing or Laozi.

What are the main tenets of Confucianism?

Confucius (5th to 6th century BC) introduced ethical principles into government, believing that human society is a reflection of the intended order of heaven itself. Confucianism encourages respecting the social order, behaving in responsible ways, service to the ruler, and filial piety (an attitude of respect for parents and ancestors). It appeals to the ruling class. His teachings were collected in the writing called the Analects.

How did Mencius expand on Confucianism?

Living a generation after Confucius, Mencius follows Confucianism but adds a greater emphasis on the natural goodness of human beings. Extended to governing, this means Mencius expects rulers to behave in positive ways for his subjects, or else the leader will be removed by the heavens, placing a condition of responsibility on government.

What is Legalism, and what related concept did it promote?

Legalism was philosophy from Li Si who argued humans are not inherently good but are weak and corruptible. As a result, humans must be forced by strict laws and strict punishments to work for the common good. A related development is meritocracy, the idea that people advance based on merit rather than by personal connections or family relations. Legalism and meritocracy dominate the governing philosophy under the Qin Dynasty.

Who was Sui Yangdi, and what was his major achievement?

Sui Yangdi is the most prominent emperor of the short-lived Sui Dynasty, considered a tyrant. His major achievement is building the Grand Canal that connects the two dominant rivers of China (Yellow and Yangtze), which improved communication, trade, transport, and possibly military movement.

What was the outcome of Sui Yangdi's attempt to conquer Korea?

Sui Yangdi's attempt to conquer Korea failed, resulting in a more unified Korea and the loss of Sui Yangdi’s power.

How did Chinese culture influence the Far East during the Medieval Era?

Most of the Far East adopted aspects of Chinese culture during the Medieval Era, such as Chinese writing, Buddhism, and Confucianism. An example is Shotoku Taishi in Japan, who prepared Japan's first real constitution in seventeen articles based on Confucian principles, and promoted Chinese city planning and Buddhism (building many early great temples).

What was a notable characteristic of the Tang Dynasty's rule?

The Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 AD) is noted for the ongoing struggle against northern “barbarians,” most notably Turks, who regularly raided Chinese territory.

Who was Tang Taizong, and what made him one of China's greatest rulers?

Tang Taizong was the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty and is considered one of the greatest rulers in Chinese history for his reforms of the government and the laws, his religious tolerance, and the prosperity China enjoyed under his reign. He expanded China’s influence after defeating the Turks, was known for his diplomatic rule, tolerance for foreign traders, and acceptance of multiple religions (e.g., Buddhism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism), and was open to advice from his counselors.

Who was Wu Zetian?

Wu Zetian became a concubine of Tang Taizong, then married his son Gaozong, becoming empress consort and the power behind the emperor. After Gaozong's death, she ruled as empress dowager, and in 690 CE, proclaimed herself openly as the first and only empress of China until 705 CE. She was one of the most effective and controversial monarchs in China's history and favors Buddhism over other religions.

What characterized the early reign of Tang Xuanzong, and what caused its decline?

Under Tang Xuanzong (r. 712-756 CE), the Tang Dynasty began its golden age. He abolished the death penalty, improved the economy and military, and built infrastructure. However, he started to grow tired of public life c. 734 CE, depending more on his consort Lady Wu Hui-fei and promoting corrupt officials like Li-Linfu. In 741 CE, he fell in love with Yang Guifei, neglecting his duties for this affair and promoting her unqualified family members, leading to the unraveling of his reforms and the beginning of the dynasty's end.

How is Tang Xuanzong remembered?

Tang Xuanzong is remembered as the “brilliant emperor” because of the success of his advisers, not for his own successes. He paid little attention to governing, leaving power in the hands of his court. His rule represents the peak of the Tang Dynasty and the beginning of its end.

What defines the Song Dynasty (960 – 1279 AD)?

The Song Dynasty is dominated by the Confucian bureaucracy, considered the peak time of Confucian influence with the rise of the school of Neo-Confucianism led by Zhu Xi. Despite the negative Confucian view of trade, commerce flourishes. It was also a period of transformation and invention.

What significant invention occurred during the Song Dynasty?

The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng (990-1051 AD) created the world's first known movable type system for printing between 1041 and 1048 during the Song dynasty, significantly improving upon expensive and time-consuming block printing.

What advances were made in rice cultivation during the Song Dynasty?

During Song times, new developments in rice cultivation—especially the introduction of new strains of rice from Central Vietnam, along with improved methods of water control and irrigation—spectacularly increased rice yields and allowing the population to grow. Rice was grown primarily south of the Yangzi River, becoming the economic center of China. Farmers developed many varieties of rice and terraced hilly land.

Who was Wang Anshi, and what were his "New Policies"?

Wang Anshi was a Song Dynasty emperor and a reformer. His “New Policies” of 1069–76 aimed to cut government expenditures in half, loan money to peasant farmers, fix prices of commodities, build schools, and replace corvée labor with a hired-service system. He also created a village militia and restructured civil service examinations.

Why were Wang Anshi's reforms unpopular, and what was their ultimate fate?

Wang Anshi's reforms were unpopular, and he was forced to resign in 1074. Although he returned briefly, an antireform clique came to power after the emperor’s death and dismantled Wang’s reforms by the time of his death shortly afterward.

What was the geographic and cultural situation of the Song Dynasty?

While the traditional geographic entity of China was intact, the Song Dynasty does not control anything outside of these areas, including the Silk Road. Between 1100-1200, the Song Dynasty loses territory to nomadic civilizations from the north. Two important cultural features emerged: the Chinese discovery of gunpowder (initially as a failed elixir for immortality), and many aristocratic women undergoing foot binding as a sign of their aristocratic status and lack of need for work.

Describe Step 1 of the Dynastic Cycle: The New Dynasty.

The New Dynasty restores peace, redistributes land to the peasants, appoints loyal officers and officials, and repairs defensive walls, builds roads, canals, and irrigation projects. This period is often referred to as a “honeymoon period” due to general happiness among the people.

Describe Step 2 of the Dynastic Cycle: The Aging Dynasty.

The Aging Dynasty is characterized by corrupt officials, losing control of the provinces, imposing a heavy tax burden on the peasants, and allowing defensive walls to decay. It eventually loses the Mandate of Heaven.

Describe Step 3 of the Dynastic Cycle: Problems Symbolic of the Lost Mandate of Heaven.

Problems Symbolic of the Lost Mandate of Heaven include peasant rebellions, floods, famine, earthquakes. Armed bandits appear in the provinces and foreign invasions occur. As a result of these problems, a New Dynasty then claims the Mandate of Heaven and the cycle starts again.

What is the Mandate of Heaven?

The Mandate of Heaven is the Chinese belief that the heavens “bless” the rule of the emperor. If the emperor is corrupt, brutal, cruel to the people, or generally a bad person, he risks losing the Mandate of Heaven. Signs of this loss are natural disasters (floods, fires, famines, earthquakes), peasant rebellions, and outside invasions. When it is clear the mandate is lost, the ancient Chinese believed they have the right to revolt and rebel.

How does the Mandate of Heaven differ from the European concept of Divine Right?

Both concepts state that the ruler's authority is divinely sanctioned. The key difference is that with the Mandate of Heaven, the Chinese believed that the people have the right to revolt and rebel if the emperor loses the mandate. In contrast, the European concept of Divine Right held that nothing the ruler could do would allow the people to revolt; opposing the king was both a crime (treason) and a sin against God.

What was Loess?

Sediment that washes down the side of the mountains into the yellow river to give it that yellow color.

Who came up with the Mandate of Heaven and what was it use for?

The Zhou claimed the Mandate of Heaven (dividend Right) to justify their rule.

Who was Qin Shi Huangdi and what did he do (4)?

First emperor of fully unified China

Things that he did:

Coinage 

Writing reformation and Language:

Begins the first great wall called Li:

Not a very tall/big wall was meant to be a speed bump to slow the attackers down.

He practiced legalism during his rule which made the people suffer