human behavior 12 weeks

consciousness

• person’s subjective awareness

• includes thoughts, perceptions, experiences of the world, self-awareness

• sleep is an altered state of _______

purposes of sleep

preservation & protection theory

restoration theory

preservation & protection theory

biological disadvantage because we can’t see in the dark, so we sleep and protect ourselves from predators

restoration theory

restore energy, brain function (neurotransmitters), etc

circadian rhythm

daily cycles of approximately 24 hours

endogenous, but subject to zeitbergers (“time givers” : sun, clocks, etc)

affect physiological & behavioral processes

involved in our daily routines to sleep or be awake, feeding/toileting, concentration, etc

suprechiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

brain structure involved in circadian rhythms

cells in the retina of the eye relay messages about light levels in the environment to this structure

communicates these signals to the pineal gland

pineal gland

releases melatonin

melatonin

regulates our circadian rhythm

peaks in levels at nighttime & is reduced during wakefulness

polysomnography

objective measurements used to examine physical variables during sleep

ex) spirometry, respiratory rate, bodily movement

electroencephalogram (EEG)

device that measures brain waves frequency & amplitude

beta waves

“up & BUSTLING around”

high-frequency, low-amplitude waves. characteristic of wakefulness

alpha waves

waves are slow & large

present during daydreaming, meditation, or when person starts to fall asleep

stages of sleep

1 = theta waves

2 = sleep spindles & k complexes

3 = delta waves

4 = delta waves, deepest

stage 1

theta waves = slow, high-amplitude

thinnest sleep

breathing, blood pressure, heart rate decrease

stage 2

periodic bursts of EEG activity

brain continues to slow

stage 3

marked by delta waves

brain continues to slow

stage 4

delta waves; deepest stage of sleep

difficult to wake a person in this stage

REM

stage of sleep characterized by quickening brain waves, deep relaxation, inhibited body movement, and rapid eye movements

aka “paradoxical sleep” = EEG waves appear as though we are awake

can experience ___ rebound when deprived of sleep

sleep cycles

awake (beta) - awake & calm (alpha) - stage 1 (theta) - stage 2 (sleep spindles) - stages 3 & 4 (delta) - REM

then cycle works it’s way in reverse

dreaming theories

psychoanalytic approach

activation-synthesis hypothesis

psychoanalytic approach

sigmund freud - believed our dreams reflect issues we face in our waking state via symbols

manifest content

dream’s imagery (literal) & storylines

latent content

actual symbolic meaning of the storylines, subconscious sources of anxiety

activation-synthesis hypothesis

suggests dreams arise from brain activity originating from bursts of excitatory messages form brain stem

accompanied by eye movements & EEG activity during REM sleep

activation: initiated by brain stem

synthesis: brain’s attempt to organize bursts of neural activity

insomnia

sleep disorder characterized by chronic difficulties with:

sleep onset = difficulty falling asleep

sleep maintenance = difficulty returning to sleep after waking in the night

early morning awakening

parasomnias

restless leg syndrome

REM sleep behavior disorder

somnambulism (sleepwalking)

sleep apnea

disorder characterized by temporary inability to breathe during sleep

narcolepsy

disorder in which a person experiences extreme daytime sleepiness & sleep attacks

hypnosis

procedure of inducing a heightened state of suggestibility. not a trance

hypnosis theories

dissociation

social - cognitive

dissociation theory

unique state in which consciousness is divided into two parts: an observer & a hidden observer

social - cognitive

emphasizes the degree to which beliefs & expectations contribute to increased suggestibility

meditation

any procedure that involves a shift in consciousness to a state in which an individual is highly focused, aware, and in control of mental processes

deja vu

distinct feeling of having seen or experienced a situation that is impossible or unlikely to have previously occurred

psychoactive drugs

induce altered states of consciousness (speed up, slow down, regulate)

substances that affect thinking, behavior, perception, and emotion

stimulants

category of drugs that speed up the nervous system, typically enhancing wakefulness & alertness

cocaine is one of the most commonly abused

ex) ecstasy, amphetamines

affect neural activity in the reward centers of the brain

hallucinogenic drugs

substances that produce perceptual distortions (visual, auditory, tactile)

ex) LSD, ketamine

depressants / sedatives

“downers” depress activity of the central nervous system

alcohol

most commonly used drug

initially targets GABA receptors in the brain

produces impairments in balance & coordination

inhibits areas of the frontal lobe

learning

process by which behavior changes as a result of experience

classical conditioning

“Pavlovian conditioning” = learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally caused by another stimulus

stimulus

external event or cue that elicits a response

can be reflexive (unconditioned or unlearned) or learned (conditioned)

unconditioned stimulus (US)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without learning

unconditioned response (UR)

reflexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a once neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response because it has a history of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned response (CR)

the learned response that occurs to the conditioned stimulus

acquisition

initial phase of learning in which a response is established

predictability with which the CS & US occur together

extinction

loss or weakening of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together

even after is occurs, it is possible for the CR to return

spontaneous recovery

reoccurence of a previously extinguished conditioned response, typically after some time has passed since extinction

extinction does not result in forgetting, but in learning something new

generalization

process in which a response that originally occurs to a specific stimulus also occurs to a different, though similar stimuli

ex) Pavlov’s dogs did not salivate to every noise they heard

discrimination

occurs when an organism learns to respond to one original stimulus but not to new stimuli that may be similar to the original stimulus

ex) pavlov’s dogs would only salivate in response to the original tone used in the experiment

operant conditioning

type of learning in which behavior is determined by consequences

individual operates on the environment before consequences can occur

involves voluntary actions (speaking, starting an activity, etc). classical conditioning = reflexive responses

reinforcer

increases the probability of that response occurring again

punisher

decreases the probability of that behavior

positive reinforcement

strengthening of behavior after potential reinforcers such as praise, money, or nourishment follow that behavior

negative reinforcement

involves the strengthening of a behavior because it removes or diminishes a stimulus

positive punishment

process in which a behavior decreases because it adds or increases a particular stimulus

negative punishment

occurs when a behavior decreases because it removes or diminishes a particular stimulus

shaping

procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing successive approximations of that response

done in a step-by-step fashion until the desired response is learned

continuous reinforcement

occurs when every response made results in reinforcement

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

occurs when only a certain number of responses are rewarded, or a certain amount of time must pass before reinforcement is available

schedules of reinforcement

amount of times (ratio)

fixed ratio

variable ratio

every time (interval)

fixed interval

variable interval

fixed ratio

reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been completed

variable ratio

number of responses required to receive reinforcement varies according to an average

fixed interval

reinforces the first response occurring after a set amount of time passes

variable interval

the first response is reinforced following a variable amount of time

observational (vicarious) learning

involves changes in behavior & knowledge that result from watching others

4 processes identified by Albert Bandura:

1) attention to the act or behavior

2) memory for it

3) ability to reproduce it

4) motivation to do so

* groups of children who did not see an aggressive role model did not display behavioral aggression

intelligence

ability to think, understand, reason, and cognitively adapt to and overcome obstacles

individual differences in the abilities to perform tasks

anthropometrics

identified by Sir Francis Galton

study / measure of people

historical term referring to the method of measuring physical & mental variation in humans

• visual acuity

• strength

• reaction time

mental age

average or typical test score for a specific chronological age

intelligence quotient (IQ)

= mental age / chronological age

general intelligence

proposed by Charles Spearman

concept that intelligence is a basic cognitive trait compromising the ability to learn, reason, and solve problems regardless of their nature

factor analysis

statistical technique that reveals similarities among a wide variety of items

specific intelligences

present only due to their relation to g

seven mental abilities

identified by LL Thurstone

1) word fluency 2) reasoning 3) verbal comprehension 4) associative memory 5) perceptual speed 6) number 7) space

savant

individual with low mental capacity in most domains but extraordinary abilities in other specific areas (music, mathematics, art)

hierarchical model

established by philip vernon

relationship between some specific intelligences, but separation of others based on individual differences

fluid intelligence

used to adapt to new situations and solve new problems without relying on previous knowledge (innate)

crystallized intelligence

form of intelligence that relies on extensive experience and knowledge and therefore tends to be relatively stable & robust (acquired over time & learned)

analytical intelligence

verbal, mathematical problem-solving

academic achievement & intelligence as measured by g

practical intelligence

ability to address real-world problems, especially those related to the individual’s work & family

creative intelligence

ability to create new ideas & solve problems

wisdom

moderates the three domains by providing the ability to ensure that learning and ability is put to use responsibly and effectively

multiple intelligences

proposed by howard gardner

model claiming that the seven (then 8, 9) different forms of intelligence exist, each independent from the others

promotes the idea of learning styles

1) verbal/linguistic 2) mathematical 3) visuospatial 4) bodily/kinestetic 5) musical/rhythmical 6) interpersonal 7) self/intrapersonal 8) naturalist 9) existential

WAIS

most commonly used intelligence test used on adolescents & adults

WISC

intelligence scale for children

verbal & non verbal

psychometrics

measurement of psychological traits & abilities

ex) personality, attitudes, intelligence

validity

degree to which a test actually measures the trait or ability it is intended to measure

reliability

measurement of the degree to which a test produces consistent results

test - retest reliability

way to measure reliability

standardized test

test that has a set of questions or problems that are administered and scored in a uniform way across large numbers of individuals

achievement test

measure knowledge & thinking skills that an indivdual has acquired

ex) class quizzes, state/nationwide tests

aptitude test

designed to measure an individual’s potential to perform well on a specific range of tasks

ex) college entrance exams - SAT, ASVAB

developmental psychology

study of change & stability of human physical, cognitive, social, and behavioral characteristics across the life span

from “womb to tomb”

‘nature vs nurture’

stability & change

prenatal development

quickest/most crucial growth

conception: union of sperm & ovum

teratogen

environmental agents capable of producing physical defects

plastic

development is not finished after birth

continues developing (until young adulthood) in accordance with genetic map and environmental experiences

schema

knowledge accumulates & is organized into these

mental models of the world & how it works

assimilation

fitting new experiences into existing schema

accomodation

changing schemas based on experience