Chinese Question And Answer Flashcards
China has varied geography, including the highlands of the Tibetan Plateau, deserts in the north, rainforest in the south, and the sea on the east. The northern border is porous, meaning nomadic tribes can migrate or invade relatively easily. There are two major rivers, the Yellow and the Yangzi.
DYNASTIC BEGINNINGS:
XIA DYNASTY (2205 – 1766 BC)
Bronze Age dynasty considered the first Chinese dynasty.
Few reliable sources exist to confirm facts or significance.
For a long time it was thought the Xia dynasty was completely legendary but in the last couple of decades evidence has surfaced that it really existed.
A site near Erlitou in Henan Province dated to 2200 to 1700 B.C. is believed to have been a Xia capital.
Archaeologists working there have found tombs filled with pottery, ornamental jade, clay irrigation pipes, and the world's oldest ritual bronze vessels.
SHANG DYNASTY (1766 – 1122 BC)
Often considered the historical beginning of China as we do have reliable archaeological and historical sources to confirm their existence.
Also existed during the Bronze Age.
Shang dynasty cities have walls, palaces, and royal tombs.
The Shang dynasty was a hereditary monarchy headed by a king; during the late Shang period the king was known by the title wang.
The government was a form of theocracy in which the king’s chief role was religious.
The Shang king was, first and foremost, a mediator between the physical world and the divine.
The Shang worshipped the high god Di, and the king was believed to be the person who could best communicate with the god via his royal ancestors.
Succession to the kingship passed through the male line, typically from father to son and from elder brother to younger brother.
Servants were buried with royals, similar to what we have seen in other civilizations in other places during the Bronze Age.
Shang religion
The religion practiced by the Shang ruling class is distinctly monotheistic in character, of which the Shang-Di (lit. “lord above”) is recognized as the one and only divine Lord (Di).
Shang political theology frames Shang-Di as an incorporeal, omnipresent, and omnipotent metaphysical deity whom wields absolute power over all human, natural and spiritual forces.
Shang religious practices emphasize worship of ancestors more so than other contemporary cultures.
While the Shang people viewed the spiritual domain (e.g. spirit of dead ancestors) is simply an extension of the human world and can be readily accessed, the divine will of Shang-Di is radically inaccessible except through the divination of the Shang king.
Oracle bones
Oracle bone script is the earliest known Chinese writing system; it is, nonetheless, a highly developed iconographic form of writing that resemble contemporary Chinese characters, and written in a grammar consistent with classical written Chinese.
These writings were used specifically during state divination ceremonies where the Shang ruler both acting as a king and as a high priest, would carve scripts concerning matters of state importance (such as military affairs, prayers for bountiful harvest, and matters concerning sacrificial offerings) onto specially prepared tortoise carapaces and cow bones.
The Shang king would then prod the oracle bones with a red-hot bronze rod, which would cause the bones to crack under the intense heat, indicating that the singular supreme deity of the Shang people, Shang-Di (上帝, lit.: “the lord from above”) had answered the questions inscribed on the bones, and the cracks left on the bones were supposedly Shang-Di’s divine answers.
Only the Shang king could interpret these and announce them to his people as divine mandates.
Oracle bones provide examples of early Chinese writing. Circa 1200 BC.
A sizable portion of the oracle bones uncovered in Shang archaeological sites contain script specifically concerning human sacrifice. These written records are also corroborated by the discovery of numerous sacrificial mass-graves in those sites.
In most Shang sacrificial rituals, only animals and valuable chattels (such as bronze wares) would be used as offerings. There were only two exceptional circumstances where human sacrifices were made:
xunzang 殉葬 (lit. “burial sacrifice”) refers to the practice in which personal slaves and servants of Shang king, upon their master’s death, were expected to commit ritual suicide or to “volunteer” themselves to be buried alive alongside with their master.
While the practice of committing ritual suicide upon the master’s death has lingered throughout Chinese history, the second type of human sacrifice, renji 人祭 (lit. “human offering sacrifice) is practiced only during the Shang dynasty period, and also the most massive in scale in terms of number of people killed in a typical renji ceremony.
The demographic pattern of Shang sacrificial victims is also quite interesting. Xunzang victims (or “volunteers”) were mostly personal slaves (i.e. house servants), and therefore in xunzang burial sites we could find a pretty even mix of male and female human remains. Renji victims, on the other hand, appears to be predominately male. Unlike xunzang, the people sacrificed for Renji were not personal slaves, but mostly prisoners of war and field slaves (keep in mind that Shang field slaves were typically captured from distant lands outside of Shang domain).
Specifically, renji functions as prayers to Shang-Di to deliver the Shang people from famine. This kind of sacrifice would only take place during periods of severe food shortage (usually due to drought or war). Hundreds of captured slaves were typically executed during a renji ceremony, usually via decapitation. The corpses of the victims, along with their severed heads, were buried in mass sacrificial pits or collectively incinerated, in order to placate what they thought was an angry Shang-Di.
The largest recorded human sacrifice of this kind was done by Shang king Wuding, where over 9,000 slaves were slaughtered as offerings to Shang-Di.
Yinyang
The earliest Chinese characters for yin and yang are found in inscriptions made on “oracle bones” (skeletal remains of various animals used in ancient Chinese divination practices at least as early as the 14th century B.C.E.).
In these inscriptions, yin and yang simply are descriptions of natural phenomena such as weather conditions, especially the movement of the sun. There is sunlight during the day (yang) and a lack of sunlight at night (yin).
According to the earliest comprehensive dictionary of Chinese characters (ca. 100 CE), yin refers to “a closed door, darkness and the south bank of a river and the north side of a mountain.” Yang refers to “height, brightness and the south side of a mountain.” These meanings of yin and yang originated in the daily life experience of the early Chinese. Peasants depended on sunlight for lighting and their daily life routines. When the sun came out, they would go to the field to work; when the sun went down, they would return home to rest.
The concept that life has two polar opposites that balance the universe, the balance between light and dark, good and evil, male and female, etc.
Shang society
Shang Dynasty were classified into four social classes:
The king and aristocracy: Members of the aristocracy were the most respected social class, and were responsible for governing smaller areas of the dynasty.
The military: Both the infantry and the chariot warriors.
Artisans and craftsmen: Who mainly worked with bronze.
Peasants: Who were mostly farmers. Some scholars believe they functioned as slaves; others believe they were more like serfs.
Shang individuals
Fu Hao:
Was one of the consorts of Wu Ding, the Shang king under whom Shang power reached its zenith.
Fu Hao’s tomb was discovered in 1976 near Anyang. It is one of the best preserved tombs from that era.
Archaeologists easily identified it as the tomb of Fu Hao. Her name had been long known from Shang period oracle texts and they found her name inscribed on the ritual bronzes on the tomb.
Most of the information we have about Fu Hao comes from oracle bone inscriptions. Many of the oracle bones show concerns for her well-being, for example childbirth and illness.
Inscriptions on the oracle bones also show that Fu Hao was involved in two aspects of royal life that were normally not open to women. She led numerous military campaigns against the neighboring Tu, Ba, Yi and Qiang tribes. One oracle bone, for example, asks whether Fu Hao should gather soldiers before an attack.
Fu Hao’s tomb has yielded over a hundred weapons, and it shows her status as a military leader.
In all there were around 2000 items buried with Fu Hao. Among these there are 468 bronzes, 750 jades, 560 of bone and over 110 of stone and semi-precious stone.
Over six thousand cowrie shells were buried with her also – these would have served as currency in the Shang period.
ZHOU (1046 to 256 BC)
It is the longest ruling Chinese dynasty.
The Zhou ruled for 867 years but had only 34 rulers!
The Zhou king was referred to as the “Son of Heaven” and he had both religious and political functions.
The Zhou Dynasty is a powerful one, but the emperors grant a lot of their land to royal princes (feudalism).
Over time, the princes who govern this land begin to become independent and consider the land theirs, not gifts from the emperors.
Much of the dynasty’s resources thus rest outside the direct control of the emperor, weakening his power.
The later years of the Zhou dynasty (ending in 256 BC) see the princes officially assert their independence. A period of inner conflict and warring states follows.
Tian
Tian = refers to the idea or concept of heaven.
Chinese emperor’s rule under the mandate of tian, the idea that their rule is blessed from heaven (started under Zhou Dynasty).
The Zhou claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule.
Thus, if a ruler cannot be just with his subjects, he tempts heaven into withdrawing the mandate.
Natural disasters and uprisings are seen as proof of these developments.
Western Zhou: (1122 – 771 BC)
Rule is done by the extensive use of feudalism.
The kingdom was broken into 55 vassal states.
In 771 BC, an alliance of rebellious states and outside invaders ends the Western Zhou period and destroys the power of the emperor.
Eastern Zhou: (771 to 256 BC)
The emperor is now a figurehead with primarily religious duties.
Real power rests with the nobility.
During the last 250 years all unity vanishes, and 7 states emerge.
This time is also referred to as the Period of Warring States.
PERIOD OF WARRING STATES (c. 471 to 221 BC)
Describes the three centuries when various rival Chinese states battled viciously for territorial advantage and dominance.
Besides incessant warfare, and probably because of it, the period saw significant developments in society, commerce, agriculture, philosophy, and the arts, setting the foundations for the subsequent flourishing of Imperial China.
Many of China’s great thinkers lived during this period.
New ideas of all kinds emerged, including the schools of Confucianism (emphasizing social and family structure), Daoism (following the patterns of nature), and Legalism (promoting systematic rewards and punishments).
They addressed the most important question of the time: how to create a stable and harmonious society.
These competing philosophies and systems of thought continued to influence Chinese beliefs in later eras, and many of them are still in active use today.
Ultimately the Qin state was victorious and established the first unified Chinese state.
QIN DYNASTY (221 – 207 BC)
Qin = pronounced “chin.” Qin dynasty united much of what we know as China today.
Protected on one side by mountains, the Qin only have potential rivals for power in one geographic direction which will ultimately give them an advantage.
Qin Shi Huangdi
Ying Zheng is the first true emperor of China.
As an ambitious young man, Ying Zheng conquered his neighbors and established the Qin Dynasty.
By 221 BC, he is the only king in China.
Because of his power, the title of wang (king) no longer adequately described him; the new title of huangdi (or emperor) is thus bestowed upon him. From this point, Ying Zheng is known by the more formal ruling name of Qin Shi Huangdi.
Under the Qin Dynasty, we see the first example of a unified China. We also see expansion outside of the traditional boundaries controlled by earlier dynasties.
His legacy is that of a ruthless but strong leader who standardized coinage, language, and began construction of the Great Wall of China (to protect his territory from invaders).
Prior to the Qin Dynasty and the rule of Ying Zheng/Qin Shi Huangdi, little of Chinese writing was standardized. Under Ying Zheng/Qin Shi Huangdi, Chinese writing was standardized into clear and readable characters that people in all corners of China recognized.
Calligraphy, the skill of writing in this new standardized form, becomes an art form.
The Terracotta Army
The Terracotta Army refers to the thousands of life-size clay models of soldiers, horses, and chariots which were deposited around the grand mausoleum of Shi Huangdi, first emperor of China and founder of the Qin dynasty, located near Lishan in Shaanxi Province, central China.
The site was discovered in 1974 CE, and the realistic army figures provide a unique insight into ancient Chinese warfare from weapons to armor or chariot mechanics to command structures.
The mausoleum at Mount Li, was constructed over 38 years, from 246 to 208 BC, and is situated underneath a 76-meter-tall tomb mound shaped like a truncated pyramid.
The layout of the mausoleum is modeled on the Qin capital Xianyang.
HAN DYNASTY: Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD)
LIU BANG
Liu Bang (also known by his ruling name of Han Gaozu) began life as a commoner, worked his way up through the military, and became a powerful general.
In 202 BC, he defeated the other former kingdoms of the Qin Dynasty, reuniting China and becoming the first emperor of the Han Dynasty.
China becomes more of a confederation of individual kingdoms than a traditional empire.
Liu Bang/Han Gaouzu rewards family members and loyal advisors with land in some of these other kingdoms.
His legacy includes relative leniency to those he rules, inspiring less opposition to his leadership, and cutting expenditures on public works (requiring less money from his subjects).
Empress Lu r. 188 to 180 BC
Empress Lü ruled from 188 – 180 B.C.E.
When Emperor Liu Bang died he left the throne to his son Huidi. Liu Bang’s justification for having the son of Empress Lü receive the throne was that Huidi would have Empress Lü to assist him in important decisions of rulership.
Although Huidi was officially the emperor, Empress Lü was the backbone behind the ruling of the Han Dynasty.
Huidi died in 188 B.C. and Empress Lü placed an infant on the throne that died shortly after. He was quickly replaced with another infant.
Through the use of puppet emperors, Empress Lü was able to rule the Han Dynasty on her own without being overthrown by her rivals.
After she had established power, she began removing members from her late husband’s family from office and began replacing them with her own family members.
Empress Lü is said to have murdered all the princes who were a potential threat to her rule. She probably is responsible for the death of four princes and may have killed several others including her husband’s son from another wife.
Although she was ruthless in her ways of maintaining power and she was not an actual heir of the Han dynasty, she offered the empire much needed stability under her rule.
She died in 180 B.C. Upon her death two Han officials appointed an emperor to the throne who was more closely related to the Han founder's Liu - clan. They removed all of Empress Lü’s family members form their positions of power, some of them by force and some of them by assassination.
HAN WUDI
Under Han Wudi the Han will reach the height of their power.
He is known for the expansion of China to include all of modern China, N. Vietnam, and N. Korea.
Han power will extend farther from its capital than Roman power!
Han Wudi forced landowners to divide their lands upon their death among all of their son’s, not just will land to the oldest or preferred son.
As a result, family wealth was more difficult to preserve.
The law also had a disastrous effect on peasants; after a few generations, peasants did not have enough land to feed their families.
Han Wudi took a bleak view of commercial trade; he wanted government monopolies.
As a result, his government never lived up to its economic potential.
In order to raise money, he sells positions in the government and military; this is opposite of the philosophy of meritocracy.
After his death, the Han Dynasty goes into decline.
SILK ROAD
Under the Han Dynasty, China takes control of the Silk Road.
The Silk Road (so named from the valuable silk exports coming out of China) is a valuable trade route through Central Asia, Northern China, and the Mediterranean.
Control of the road gives China additional wealth and political power.
END OF WESTERN HAN DYNASTY
Wang Mang proclaims himself as an emperor in 9 AD.
He tries to address the discontent of the aristocracy by lowering government demands on them while also trying to help peasants by easing land restrictions and offering loans.
Wang Mang was a follower of both Legalism and Confucianism philosophies.
These policies are contradictory, and he ultimately satisfies neither the rich nor the poor.
Famine and natural disasters follow, interpreted by some as an indication that he does not have the Mandate of Heaven.
The Red Eyebrow rebellion is an attempt by desperate and essentially conservative peasants to reverse some of Wang’s riskier reforms, and one of the two major peasant rebellion movements against Wang Mang.
It was so named because the rebels painted their eyebrows red and led to Wang Mang’s downfall.
EASTERN (Later) HAN DYNASTY (9 AD – 220 AD)
Decline of the Han
The Eastern/Later Han is a newer, but different version of the old Han Dynasty.
The Eastern/Later Han had a long succession of minor and ineffective rulers.
Much of the power of the government rested in the hands of the court (or advisors), many of whom were eunuchs (castrated men) who were believed to be less corrupt because they could not father children (and thus show favoritism to them).
YELLOW TURBAN REBELLION
The Rebellion of the Yellow Turbans was a failed rebellion against the leadership of the Eastern/Later Han Dynasty, resulting in more political power in the hands of the generals.
As flooding along the Yellow River forced farmers and military settlers south, the labor surplus incentivized exploitation.
Disease outbreaks were reported in 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185 CE, with the potential cause theorized as the Antonine Plague of 165 to 180CE of smallpox or measles spreading along the Silk Road.
The rebellion was finally ruthlessly crushed by the poet-warrior Cao Cao (l. 155-220 CE) within a year and Zhang Jue died with it.
One of the reasons Cao Cao was able to wield the power he did was that a court advisor and general, Liu Yan (d. 194 CE), had persuaded Emperor Lingdi that he should relinquish control of military governors and their provinces and allow each to act according to their own set of circumstances.
This move would essentially grant regional governors/commanders more or less complete autonomy from the emperor but, even so, Lingdi agreed to the plan.
It is ultimately 3 generals of the Eastern/Later Han who overthrow the dynasty, leading to the Three Kingdoms period.
Han Dynasty Legacies
The Han Dynasty leaves several lasting legacies including the invention of paper in 100 AD by Cai Lun.
The beginning of the Chinese civil service examination system. In 165 BC Emperor Wen of Han introduced recruitment to the civil service through examinations.
Perhaps the most significant Han Dynasty legacy, is that modern China still identifies itself with its Han past. Most Chinese people today consider themselves Han Chinese.
PHILOSOPHIES OF ANCIENT CHINA:
DAOISM
Dao or Tao means “the way.”
In Daoism (sometimes referred to as Taoism), “the way” is nature, a divinely established order for things.
The Dao is the way of nature. Things that are not natural are not worthwhile.
Human society aspects such as kings, lords, armies, taxes, etc., are not worth honoring.
The way to become one with the Dao was through wuwei which means “inaction”.
Because of this emphasis, the philosophy/religious tradition of Daoism originally appeals more to lower social classes rather than the aristocracy.
The most important Daoist philosopher is Lao Zi, who wrote the influential text the Dao Da Jing or Laozi.
Translation is Book of Reason and Virtue.
CONFUCIANISM
Confucius lived 5th to 6th century BC.
A government official in one of the royal courts, he produced texts on the proper method of governing which became the basis for Confucianism.
He will introduce ethical principles into government.
Confucius believed in a Dao of sorts, but not as a way of nature. Confucius believed that human society is a reflection of the intended order of heaven itself.
Respecting the social order in encouraged, thus Confucianism encourages behaving in responsible ways, service to the ruler, and filial piety.
Filial piety is an attitude of respect for parents and ancestors in societies influenced by Confucian thought. Filial piety is demonstrated, in part, through service to one's parents.
Confucianism appeals to the ruling class.
After Confucius died his followers collected his teachings into a writing called the Analects.
MENCIUS
Living a generation after Confucius, Mencius follows Confucianism but adds other elements.
These elements include a greater emphasis on the natural goodness of human beings.
Extended to governing, this means Mencius expects rulers to behave in positive ways for his subjects, or else the leader will be removed by the heavens.
This idea places a condition of responsibility on government.
LEGALISM
Legalism was philosophy from Li Si who argued humans are not inherently good but are weak and corruptible.
As a result, humans must be forced by strict laws and strict punishments to work for the common good.
A related development is meritocracy, the idea that people advance based on merit rather than by personal connections or family relations.
Legalism and meritocracy dominate the governing philosophy under the Qin Dynasty.
SUI DYNASTY
Sui Yangdi is the most prominent emperor of the short-lived Sui Dynasty.
Considered a tyrant, he murdered his father & several brothers to take power.
His major achievement is building the Grand Canal that connects the two dominant rivers of China (Yellow and Yangtze).
This improved communication within the realm, but some historians feel the main purpose of the canal may have been to move the military.
Since its completion as the world's largest artificial waterway, it has been used for trade, transport, and communication.
Sui Yangdi also tried to conquer Korea (Korea was receptive to Chinese culture but not Chinese rule).
The attempt fails, resulting in a more unified Korea and the loss of Sui Yangdi’s power.
His short, brutish, reign is typical of Medieval Chinese emperors.
MEDIEVAL ERA
Most of the Far East adopts aspects of Chinese culture during the Medieval Era, such as Chinese writing, Buddhism, and Confucianism.
An example is Shotoku Taishi (taishi roughly translates to “prince”) in Japan, while ruling as regent for his aunt after the death of his father.
He prepared Japan's first real constitution in seventeen articles based on Confucian principles.
He proved an enlightened ruler and is sometimes credited with drafting and importing many ideas from China such as city planning and political arts.
In addition, Japanese royal residences and city plans were copies of Chinese capitals.
In terms of Buddhist history in Japan, Shōtoku is regarded as the first Japanese aristocrat to understand basic Buddhist doctrines and to distinguish it clearly from native Japanese cults of kami.
He is also credited with building many of the early great temples in Japan, such as the Hōryūji and the Shitennōji. Whether or not he was personally responsible for their construction, he certainly provided the patronage and helped create an atmosphere conducive to such building projects.
MEDIEVAL ERA: TANG DYNASTY (618 – 907 AD)
The 2nd Medieval Chinese Dynasty is the Tang.
Their rule is noted for the ongoing struggle against northern “barbarians,” most notably Turks, who regularly raided Chinese territory.
Tang Taizong
Tang Taizong was the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty and is considered one of the greatest rulers in Chinese history for his reforms of the government and the laws, his religious tolerance, and the prosperity China enjoyed under his reign.
As an active military leader, Tang Taizong’s military efforts were instrumental in placing his father on the throne as the first Tang emperor.
Tang Taizong later forced his father to cede power to him and ordered the death of some of his brothers to prevent rival claims to the throne.
After defeating the raiding Turks, he expanded China’s influence.
In addition, he is noted for his diplomatic rule, tolerance for foreign traders, and acceptance of multiple religions.
His accomplishments are why his actions to become emperor are overlooked.
Religious tolerance and diversity in China flourished under Taizong's reign.
Buddhism became widely practiced, surpassing Confucianism and curbing the popularity of Taoism.
Taizong allowed the Christian missionary Alopen to preach his religion in China in 635 CE, introducing Christian concepts to the country and in 638 CE a Persian mission was allowed to establish Zoroastrian groups.
In the same way that he welcomed all different faiths, he embraced diverse ethnicities and elevated people of different ethnic groups to positions at the imperial court.
He was open to advice and listened carefully to the wisdom of his counselors. When his chancellor, Wei Zheng, pointed out over 200 mistakes the emperor had made thus far in his reign, Taizong accepted the criticism and corrected them. When he was told a military expedition would be too costly for the people, he abandoned it.
Wu Zetian
Wu Zetian became a concubine of 2nd emperor of Tang Dynasty (Tang Taizong) at age 14.
Her role in his house was as a laundress.
After his death, she married his son, Gaozong (r. 649-683 CE) and became empress consort but actually was the power behind the emperor.
When Gaozong died in 683 CE, Wu took control of the government as empress dowager, placing two of her sons on the throne and removing them almost as quickly.
She was the power behind the throne from Gaozong's death in 683 CE until she proclaimed herself openly in 690 CE and ruled as the first and only empress of China until a year before her death in 705 CE, at the age of 81.
She was one of the most effective and controversial monarchs in China's history.
As a leader, she favors Buddhism over other religions.
Tang Xuanzong (r. 712-756 CE)
He was the grandson of Wu Zetian.
Under Xuanzong's reign the Tang Dynasty began its golden age.
Xuanzong abolished the death penalty, improved the economy through security on the Silk Road, increased maritme trading, decreed financial reforms, constructed temples and administrative complexes, built roads, and improved industry.
He reorganized the military so that farmers were no longer conscripted against their will and built a professional army of veterans who were more effective in guarding the borders and reclaiming land from nomadic tribes.
Xuanzong started to grow tired of public life c. 734 CE and began depending more on the advice of his consort, Lady Wu Hui-fei, who suggested he elevate a close friend of her family, Li-Linfu, to a more prominent position in order to take on some of the burden of rule.
Li-Linfu was made chancellor, and since he was a close friend of the family, Xuanzong felt he could trust him, but he was wrong. Li-Linfu was a corrupt and power-hungry man who only cared about advancing himself.
In 737 CE Consort Wu died, and Xuanzong withdrew further into his own pleasures and left the business of government to Li-Linfu.
In 741 CE, Xuanzong fell in love with a woman named Yang Guifei who was married to one of his sons. Yang left her husband and moved into the imperial palace with Xuanzong.
He neglected his duties as emperor for this love affair and agreed to anything Lady Yang asked. She began with small requests which he granted, and these grew into larger demands until she got him to promote members of her family to important positions even though these people could not do the jobs.
All the important reforms and progress Xuanzong had made started to unravel as the members of Yang's family abused their positions and neglected their duties.
He is remembered as the “brilliant emperor” because of the success of his advisers, not for his own successes.
He paid little attention to governing, leaving power in the hands of his court.
His rule represents the peak of the Tang Dynasty and the beginning of its end.
SONG DYNASTY (960 - 1279 AD)
The Song Dynasty is dominated by the Confucian bureaucracy, considered the peak time of Confucian influence.
The rise of the school of Neo-Confucianism led by Zhu Xi.
Despite the negative Confucian view of trade, commerce flourishes.
The Song Dynasty is also a period of transformation and invention.
Inventions and Developments
Moveable type:
The Chinese produce a precursor to moveable type using wooden blocks.
The Chinese inventor Bi Sheng (990-1051 AD) created the world's first known movable type system for printing.
His printing system was invented between 1041 and 1048 during the Song dynasty.
Block printing was an expensive and time-consuming process, for each carved block could only be used for a specific page of a particular book; additionally, a single carving mistake could ruin the whole block.
The new innovative printing system created by Chinese porcelain made books faster to print.
Rice cultivation:
During Song times, new developments in rice cultivation — especially the introduction of new strains of rice from what is now Central Vietnam, along with improved methods of water control and irrigation — spectacularly increased rice yields and allowing the population to grow.
Rice was used primarily as food but was also used to brew the wine consumed in homes and taverns.
Rice was grown primarily south of the Yangzi River. This area had many advantages over the north China plain, as the climate is warmer and rainfall more plentiful.
The mild temperatures of the south often allowed two crops to be grown on the same plot of land — a summer and a winter crop.
The many rivers and streams of the region facilitated shipping, which reduced the cost of transportation and, thus, made regional specialization economically more feasible.
During the Song period, the Yangzi River regions became the economic center of China.
As grown throughout East Asia before modern times, rice required much labor — to level the paddy fields, clear irrigation ditches, plant and especially transplant the seedlings, as well as to weed, harvest, thresh, and husk.
Farmers developed many varieties of rice, including drought resistant and early ripening varieties, as well as rice suited for special purposes such as brewing.
They also remade the landscape by terracing hilly land, so that rice could be grown on it.
Agricultural manuals helped to disseminate the best techniques for rice cultivation.
Wang Anshi (d. 1086)
Wang Anshi was a Song Dynasty emperor. He was a reformer.
He cuts government expenditures in half, loans money to peasant farmers, fixes prices of commodities, and builds schools.
His “New Policies” of 1069–76 sparked academic controversy that continued for centuries.
He created a fund for agricultural loans to farmers to spare them the exorbitant demands of moneylenders.
He also replaced corvée labour with a hired-service system financed by a graduated tax levied on all families.
He enabled officials to purchase supplies at the cheapest price in the most convenient market.
He established a village militia system, reorganized the Hanlin Academy, and restructured the civil service examinations.
Wang’s reforms were unpopular, and he was forced to resign in 1074.
He returned to government in 1075, but with less political power.
After the emperor’s death an antireform clique came to power and dismantled Wang’s reforms by the time of his death shortly afterward.
Geographic Control & Cultural Features
The traditional geographic entity of China is intact, but the Song Dynasty does not control anything outside of these areas.
The civilizations on the borders of China imitate Chinese government administration but are not under Song control (including the important trade route of the Silk Road).
Between 1100-1200, the Song Dynasty loses territory to nomadic civilizations from the north.
Two important cultural features emerged during this period:
First, the Chinese discover gunpowder – first discovered as a failed attempt at an elixir to give emperors immortality.
In 1044 while the Chinese have been using gunpowder, the scientists Zeng Gongliang and Yang Weide write a paper, in which they record formulas for making even more powerful powder to use.
The military uses of gunpowder are not mastered immediately, however.
Second, many aristocratic women undergo a torturous process called foot binding, bending their feet out of shape.
Foot binding shows that as aristocrats, such women have no need to be on their feet for work purposes.
Foot binding
STEP 1: The New Dynasty
Restores peace.
Redistributes land to the peasants.
Appoints loyal officers and officials.
Repairs defensive walls, builds roads, canals, and irrigation projects.
This period is often referred to as a “honeymoon period” due to general happiness among the people.
After several generations, the New Dynasty becomes an aging dynasty.
STEP 2: The Aging Dynasty
Characterized by corrupt officials.
Loses control of the provinces.
Imposes a heavy tax burden on the peasants.
Allows defensive walls to decay.
Eventually loses the Mandate of Heaven.
STEP 3: Problems Symbolic of the Lost Mandate of Heaven
Include peasant rebellions, floods, famine, earthquakes.
Armed bandits appear in the provinces and foreign invasions occur.
As a result of these problems, a New Dynasty then claims the Mandate of Heaven and the cycle starts again.
The Mandate of Heaven
The Chinese belief that the heavens “bless” the rule of the emperor.
If the emperor is corrupt, brutal, cruel to the people, or generally a bad person, he risks losing the Mandate of Heaven.
Signs that the emperor has lost the Mandate of Heaven are natural disasters such as floods, fires, famines, earthquakes, etc.
Peasant rebellions and outside invasions are also signs of loss of the Mandate of Heaven.
When it is clear that the dynasty/emperor has lost the Mandate of Heaven, the ancient Chinese believed that they have the right to revolt and rebel against the emperor.
The Mandate of Heaven is similar to the European concept of Divine Right, which states that God put the king and his family on the throne.
The difference between the two is that the Chinese believed that the people have the right to revolt and rebel, but in Europe there was nothing the ruler could do that would allow the people to revolt and rebel. In Europe, to go against the king was not only a crime (treason) but also a sin because they were going against God.